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WORKS OF H. G. RICHEY 

PUBLISHED BY 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. 

43-45 EAST 19TH STREET, NEW YORK 

A Handbook for Superintendents of Construction, 
Architects, Builders, and Building Inspectors. 

i6mo, v +742 pages, 357 figures. Morocco, $4.00. 

The Building Foreman’s Pocket Book and Ready 
Reference. 

i6mo, ix + 1118 pages, 6s6figures. Morocco, $5.00. 
The Building Mechanics’ Ready Reference. 

Carpenters and Woodworkers’ Edition. 

i6mo, vi +226 pages, 118 figures. Morocco, $1.50, net. 
Stone and Brick Masons’ Edition. 

i6mo, v 4-251 pages, 232 figures. Morocco, $1.50, net. 
Cement Workers and Plasterers’ Edition. 

i6mo, vi 4-458 pages, 193 figures. Morocco, $1.50, net. 
Plumbers, Steam-Fitters, and Tinners’ Edition. 
i6mo, vi 4-529 pages, 201 figures. Morocco, $1.50, net. 

Published by W. T. COMSTOCK 
23 WARREN STREET, — NEW YORK 

Richey’s Guide and Assistant for Carpenters and 
Mechanics. 

117 pages, 201 figures. Cloth, $2.00. 






THE BUILDING MECHANICS’ 
BEADY BEEEBENCE 

CEMENT WORKERS’ AND PLASTERERS’ 
EDITION 


\BY 

Wklf EICHEY 

Superintendent of Construction U. S. Public Buildings 


FIRST EDITION 
THIRD THOUSAND 


NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY" & SONS 
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 



Copyright-. 1908 

BY 


E. 0 RICHE* 

o 

By Tfansfer 

War Dept Ait Corp# 

OCT 2 2L 19 30 



1 



PRESS OF 

BRAUNWORTH & CO. 
BOOK MANUFACTURERS 
BROOKLYN. N. Y. 




Cs 

vx* 


PREFACE. 


In preparing this volume of the “Building Mechanics’ 
Ready Reference,” the author has had in mind the fact that 
there is very little literature available for the use of the ordi¬ 
nary mechanic or worker in cement and concrete. While there 
are a number of works devoted to cement and concrete, they 
are nearly all written from the engineer’s point of view and 
for the use of engineers. 

Thus in preparing this work the author has endeavored to 
present his ideas and information in such language, and in 
such a manner that it will be readily understood by the ordi¬ 
nary mechanic. 

A large amount of information contained in the book has been 
reduced to tables, whereby the mechanic can at a glance find 
what he wishes to know and which will expedite his work. 

As a large number of mechanics are engaged in both cement 
work and plastering, a chapter has been devoted to plasters 
and plastering. 

A chapter on laying out work has also been incorporated, 
the author having deemed this necessary, owing to the rapid 
advancement of cement and concrete work. The mechanic 
now engaged upon such work, often working from drawings, 
should have a full knowledge of how to lay out any part of 
the work on which he is engaged. 

The author will be pleased to hear from any reader regarding 
any error, typographical or otherwise, found in this work, 
or any idea or suggestion that may be useful in a future edition. 
Address the author, care of the publishers. 

H. G. Richey. 

iii 







Q, 
























































































CONTENTS, 


PART I. 

PAGE 

Various Cements. 1 

Specifications for Cements. 6 

Tests of Cements. 18 

Analysis of Various Cements. 39 

Strength of Various Cements. 40 

PART II. 

Concrete. 44 

Aggregates and Sand.,. 45 

Mixing Concrete. 49 

Strength of Concrete. 54 

Specifications for Concrete. 60 

Composition of Concrete. 65 

Notes on Cement and Concrete. 70 

PART III. 

Mortar and Materials for Making.;. 74 

Reinforced Concrete. 88 

Concrete Piles. 102 

Forms and Centering. 105 

Laying Out Work.-. 117 

Short Cuts and Methods of Doing Work. 142 

PART IV. 

Sidewalk Construction. 159 

Curbs. Coping, etc. 179 

Finishing the Exposed Surface of Concrete. 182 

Effect of Various Actions on Concrete. 186 

Various Uses of Cement and Concrete. 205 

Tables for Estimating Cement Work. 222 

Excavation Tables. 236 


V 




























VI 


CONTENTS. 


PART V. 

PAGE 

Cement Building Blocks. 244 

Materials and Manufacture of Cement Blocks. 248 

Manufacture and Use of Special Blocks. 252 

Making and Using Special Moulds. 255 

Casting Cement Stone or Blocks. 261 

Specifications for Blocks. 266 

Building Regulations for Use of Blocks. 276 

Tests of Building Blocks. 284 

Cost of Cement and Plaster Work. 286 

PART VI. 

Lathing and Plastering.'. 287 

Lathing and Furring. .. 289 

Materials for Making Plaster. 295 

Applying Plaster. 298 

Use of Hard or Patent Plasters. 300 

Various Work Done by Plasterers. 303 

Estimating Plastering. 303 

Tables for Estimating. 308 

PART VII. 

Rules for Superintending Concrete Construction. 318 

Tables of Strength, Weight, etc. 327 

Miscellaneous Tables. 366 

Various Receipts, Hints, etc. 383 

Mensuration Tables. 399 

A Few Problems for the Noon Hour.430 

Wage Tables .. 430 


























PART I. 


VARIOUS CEMENTS, SPECIFICATIONS FOR 
CEMENTS, TESTS OF CEMENTS, ANALY¬ 
SIS OF VARIOUS CEMENTS, STRENGTH 
OF VARIOUS CEMENTS. 

Cements. —Natural cements are generally called Rosen- 
dale cement, from the name of the town in New York where 
it was first made in this country. It is made from a natural 
rock containing about 60 per cent of lime and magnesia to 
about 40 per cent of silica and alumina, with a little iron or 
potash. This cement sets and attains its limit of strength 
much quicker than Portland, and is used where extreme strength 
is not necessary. Portland cement, because the price is becom¬ 
ing cheaper than in former days, is now fast taking the place 
of Rosendale cement. 

Rosendale cement is’ usually a dark brown; a light color 
indicates an inferior oement. 

Weight and Chemical Analysis. — Weight .—The average 
weight of Louisville or Rosendale cement is as follows: 


1 cubic foot, loose. 55§ pounds. 

1 cubic foot, packed. 74 


Therefore a barrel of 265 pounds contains 4.77 cubic feet of 
loose cement and 3.58 cubic feet of packed cement. 

Louisville cement is shipped in three kinds of packages: bar¬ 
rels, weighing 285 pounds gross; paper bags, 82 pounds each; 
and jute sacks, weighing 133 pounds each. 

Chemical Analysis .—The following is a characteristic analysis 
of Louisville or Rosendale cement: 




2 


CEMENTS. 


Silica. 

.. 26.40 

per cent 

Alumina. 

.. 6.28 

u 

Iron oxide. 

.. 1.00 

tt 



ts 

Magnesia. 

.. 9.00 

u 

Potash and soda. 

.. 4.24 

(6 

Sulphate lime. 

. 0.00 

tc 

Carbonic acid, water, and loss.. 

.. 7.86 

« 


100.00 

per cent 


The following specifications for natural cements have been 
prepared and are used by the United States Engineer Depart¬ 
ment: 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR NATURAL CEMENT. 

(1) The cement shall be a freshly packed natural or Rosen- 
dale, dry and free from lumps. By natural cement is meant 
one made by calcining natural rock at a heat below incipient 
fusion and grinding the product to powder. 

(2) The cement shall be put up in strong, sound barrels, 
well lined with paper so as to be reasonably protected against 
moisture, or in stout cloth or canvas sacks. Each package 
shall be plainly labelled with the name of the brand and of 
the manufacturer. 

Any package broken or containing damaged cement may 
be rejected or accepted as a fractional package, at the option 
of the United States agent in local charge. 

(3) Bidders will state the brand of cement which they pro¬ 
pose to furnish. The right is reserved to reject a tender for 
any brand which has not given satisfaction in use under cli¬ 
matic or other conditions of exposure of at least equal severity 
to those of the work proposed. 

(4) Tenders will be received only from manufacturers or 
their authorized agents. 

(The following paragraph will be substituted for paragraphs 
3 and 4 above when cement is to be furnished and placed by 
the contractor: 

No cement will be allowed to be used except established 
brands of high-grade natural cement which have been in suc¬ 
cessful use under similar climatic conditions to those of the 
proposed work.) 










CEMENTS. 3 

(5) The average net weight per barrel shall not be less than 
300 pounds. (West of the Allegheny Mountains this may 
be 265 pounds.) . . . Sacks of cement shall have the same 
weight as 1 barrel. If the average net weight, as determined 
by test weighings, is found to be below 300 pounds (265) per 
barrel, the cement may be rejected, or, at the option of the 
engineer officer in charge, the contractor may be required to 
supply free of cost to the United States an additional amount 
of cement equal to the shortage. 

(6) Tests may be made of the fineness, time of setting, and 
tensile strength of the cement. 

(7) Fineness. —At least 80 per cent of the cement must 
pass through a sieve made of No. 40 wire, Stubb’s gauge, hav¬ 
ing 10,000 openings per square inch. 

(8) Time of Setting. —The cement shall not acquire its 
initial set in less than twenty minutes and must have acquired 
its final set in four hours. 

(9) The time of setting is to be determined from a pat of 
neat cement mixed for five minutes with 30 per cent of water 
by weight and kept under a wet cloth until finally set. The 
cement is considered to have acquired its initial set when the 
pat will bear, without being appreciably indented, a wire one- 
twelfth inch in diameter loaded to weigh one-fourth pound. 
The final set has been acquired when the pat will bear, with¬ 
out being appreciably indented, a wire one twenty-fourth inch 
in diameter loaded to weigh 1 pound. 

(10) Tensile Strength. —Briquettes made of neat cement 
shall develop the following tensile strengths per square inch, 
after having been kept in air for twenty-four hours under a 
wet cloth and the balance of the time in water: 

At the end of seven days, 90 pounds; at the end of twenty- 
eight days, 200 pounds. 

Briquettes made of one part cement and one part standard 
sand by weight shall develop the following tensile strengths 
per square inch: 

After seven days, 60 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 150 
pounds. 

(11) The highest result from each set of briquettes made at 
any one time is to be considered the governing test. Any 
cement not showing an increase of strength in the twenty-eight- 
day tests over the seven-day tests will be rejected. 

(12) The neat cement for briquettes shall be mixed with 3Q 


4 


7 ~ 


CEMENTS. 


per cent of water by weight, and the sand and cement with 17 
per cent of water by weight. After being thoroughly mixed 
and worked for five minutes the cement or mortar is to be 
placed in the briquette mould in four equal layers, each of which 
is to be rammed and compressed by thirty blows of a soft 
brass or copper rammer three-fourths of an inch in diameter 
(or seven-tenths of an inch square with rounded corners), 
weighing 1 pound. It is to be allowed to drop on the mix¬ 
ture from a height of about half an inch. Upon completion 
of ramming the surplus cement shall be struck off and the 
layer smoothed with a trowel held nearly horizontal and drawn 
back with sufficient pressure to make its edge follow the sur¬ 
face of the mould. 

(13) The above are to be considered the minimum require¬ 
ments. Unless a cement has been recently used on work 
under this office, bidders will deliver a sample barrel for test 
before the opening of the bids. Any cement showing, by sample, 
higher tests than those given must maintain the average so 
shown in subsequent deliveries. 

(14) A cement may be rejected which fails to meet any of 
the above requirements. An agent of the contractor may be 
present at the making of the tests, or, in case of failure of any 
of them, they may be repeated in his presence. If the con¬ 
tractor so desires, the engineer officer may, if he deems it to 
the interest of the United States, have any or all of the tests 
made or repeated at some recognized standard testing labora¬ 
tory in the manner above specified. All expenses of such tests 
shall be paid by the contractor, and all such tests shall be 
made on samples furnished by the engineer officer from cement 
actually delivered to him. * 

Portland Cement. —Portland cement is what is known as 
a tri-calcic cement and is composed of lime, silica, alumina, 
iron oxide, and magnesia artificially blended together into a 
scientifically correct mixture and burned at a white heat. The 
process varies greatly with the character of the raw materials 
used. 

By the heat of the kiln the silica, lime, alumina, and oxide 
of iron become silicate of lime and alumina, and aluminate of 
lime and ferrite of lime. If the composition of these compounds 
is brought about in the right proportions in the molecule and 
in the mass, their nature is to crystallize when wet with water, 
and then harden till they become as rocks. 


CEMENTS.' 


5 


When any lime leaves the kiln uncombined and is not changed 
to hydrate of lime, or carbonate of lime by exposure to the air, 
the uncombined lime will act as a deleterious ingredient, and 
is the cause of the swelling of cement in barrels and the checking 
and blowing found in finished cement-work; if the cement 
contains any of this uncombined lime it will generally show 
in the tests made for soundness or expansion. 

Nearly all the Portland cement made in this country 
is produced artificially. The name “Portland” is given the 
cement on account of its color when hardened, which resembles 
the color of a stone f jund on the Isle of Portland, off the coast of 
England. 

The quality of Portland cement depends on the raw materials 
used, their proportion, and fineness t which it is ground. Port¬ 
land cement sets much slower than the natural cements and 
requires a much longer time to reach its limit of strength, but 
attains a much greater strength than the natural cement. 

The color of Portland cement is a dark bluish or drab color. 
It should weigh at least 375 pounds per barrel and 4 sacks should 
equal a barrel. A cement which is lighter in weight than this 
is liable to be poor. 

Chemical Composition. —The ordinary composition of a good 
Portland cement varies as follows: 

Lime. from 60 to 64 per cent 

Silica.. from 20 to 24 il 

Alumina and iron oxide.. . from 8 to 12 11 

Magnesia. from 1 tw 4 11 

Alkalies. . . .from tr ce to 2 iC 

Sulphuric acid. from 1 to 2 il 

. Cement containing over 4 per cent of magnesia and 2 per 
cent of sulphuric acid should be avoided. 

The manufacturers of Portland cement will usually sell their 
cement under the following guarantee- 

1st. The cement will stand a minimum tensile strain of 600 
pounds to the square-inch section of neat briquettes kept one 
day in air and six days in water. 2d. The cement will stand 
a minimum tensile strain of 175 pounds per square-inch section, 
3 parts of sand and 1 part of cement, the briquettes kept one 
day in air and six days in water, standard crushed quartz used 
in testing. 3d. The cement will stand what is known as the 







6 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS. 


boiling test. 4th. 85 per cent of this cement will pass through a 
No. 200 sieve. 96 per cent will pass through a No. 100 sieve. 
All of the barrel cement will be put up in tight packages of great 
strength and uniformity. The bag cement will be put up in 
cotton bags of superior quality, and all the weights are strictly 
guaranteed. 

The following are the specifications used by the United States 
Engineering Department for Portland cement * 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR AMERICAN PORTLAND CEMENT. 

(1) The cement shall be an American Portland, dry and free 
from lumps. By a Portland cement is meant the puctrod 
obtained from the heating or calcining up to incipient fusion 
of intimate mixtures, either natural or artificial, of argillaceous 
with calcareous substances, the calcined product to contain at 
least 1.7 times as much of lime, by weight, as of the materials 
which give the lime its hydraulic properties, and to be finely 
pulverized after said calcination, and thereafter additions or 
substitutions for the purpose only of regulating certain prop¬ 
erties of technical importance to be allowable to not exceeding 

2 per cent of the calcined product. 

(2) The cement shall be put up in strong, sound barrels well 
lined with paper, so as to be reasonably protected against 
moisture, or in stout cloth or canvas sacks. Each package 
shall be plainly labelled with the name of the brand and of the 
manufacturer. Any package broken or containing damaged 
cement may be rejected or accepted as a fractional package, at 
the option of the United States agent in local charge. 

(3) Bidders will state the brand of cement which they pro¬ 
pose to furnish. The right is reserved to reject a tender for 
any brand which has not established itself as a high-grade 
Portland cement and has not for three years or more given 
satisfaction in use under climatic or other conditions of exposure 
of at least equal severity to those of the work proposed. 

(4) Tenders will be received only from manufacturers or 
their authorized agents. 

(The following paragraph will be substituted for paragraphs 

3 and 4 above when cement is to be furnished and placed by 
the contractor: 

No cemeut will be allowed to be used except established 


SF£ TFICAT 11 .VS FOR CEMES : 5 . 


< 


cgzij; if PcrtLaiel renem - T-ir T-vt* beer mce 

fcy tti sime zi.il mil ia iTceesfoi ose wider e—be- ri wMiie 


awriksane v. rbise of tk iro*^: Tvork for i« ie&st lime TPas » 
: "Tu± it eca^e per lira -r.ib cot be iesc Tcsn >75 

TIEZHIH 217 Tern 5atfcs -VT COIHLiia. ICir boXTCl if ggrrjgT.I. 
T Hr ~r -T:r~.~ id dec^raed. it tesc "yr is ~~ rr~«~! io 

:e eicw I": iootiS! per lamL iti cenrHi zn j be referred, 
ir is Hie iputin IE hi ir.H~r.eer ironer hi hhltti. ibe ccw&scsar 
ZH17 ~e leqoaei zo 177717 :*m of east to ibe ^rirei Stated 


1H. 10717 17^ 7771777 IE CSBOl CffllH tO 771 AhTSJUIE- 

-i- u 

T Tests 7717 be ~.i ~r if ~~~e zzeries. ipeerSe sekttej, 

L T77t if ie~~HH. 177 I-msIt SH77H~7 €E* 171 Z£77£H7- 

xbhbbl- — T iaIj ten 7 : 1 • 7 ' is— 

1 sene- made cf V 7 ±, — 77 , State A ri'ise. "hthi 
Is fCOooenfaas 7er sepore iniT 

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IT ^ 

SS '1H777771 7777 1 177717 -^7717 777 tltEL .1777177 insd. 


ie ~ :e ier jwren LW i-«i bf.f 

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V‘LC TT 777! if 77" 77771 7 17717 7717 HE 1717771 77777 
far I - ! 71715 T l " ibid J) 111 7H77 if HieT Z J llizfz 
-V be 77*71 GEL 771 12*17 pO£ ibid 3 717tS 7 717171 
■TTi 7-77 If" 717 Xu I HI 11777. Hi 11777 171711 10 i 1777 
7171 . Til 7£L7! ill FO» be i-in 77*717 i Wit llld 7777 ,r.. J 

aer. 7777 one is to be iiaced bi fns 7 mer for : 17777 —: itii 
71 - 7 . Toe second in v.i :e oii-iei in «attr ttlh ce 

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5*27ber ibrcio ! 7 *y^r ibsocniin er :mis. Use oil. 7 7 less 

777 t :r 771 j 7ic reject it obi ipricn if ~n.e rr nni er afaer 77 

descs?. 

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tt~t~t;■ ~ S' 77 Less -71- : 177-771 7777ones 777 THOSE 77.'7 JOqtKCd 


— -T-:l 511 77 ten kioas. 

Toe f:D: non ilih-thtiih —T be sdbstkised fir obi icc*r= 

ir “>ee i : r 7*.’H-s-' 777 recsefflt is ieshh: 

Toe Foment sctT 7 *ic m Tins bis Mai set br Tss ifm notr 

7 ir Tiers ibe- vTt 77HL7~es* i7*i tots: biw iii|Wui ns ttt* 

5 c-r in zee mi niny— zizmcs zer m ziiiin mi i"vn 
me aae-zali faonrsw 

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-r- r~Ae fm cf seiOTTH- TTe oiTitHi is et?csifc*d 70 Qave 

ictltnrsc 70S -:..i. alii I7t7 77t 7^5 -tiH. 'TOl’C -*=*-—3 






































8 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS. 


appreciably indented, a wire one-twelfth inch in diameter 
loaded to weigh one-fourth pound. The final set has been 
acquired when the pat will bear, without being appreciably 
indented, a wire one twenty-fourth inch in diameter loaded 
to weigh 1 pound. 

(11) Tensile Strength. —Briquettes made of neat cement, 
after being kept in air for twenty-four hours under a wet cloth 
and the balance of the time in water, shall develop tensile 
strength per square inch as follows: 

After seven days, 450 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 540 
pounds. 

Briquettes made of 1 part cement and 3 parts standard sand, 
by weight, shall develop tensile strength per square inch as 
follows: 

After seven days, 140 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 220 
pounds. 

(In case quick-setting cement is desired, the following ten¬ 
sile strengths shall be substituted for the above : 

Neat briquettes: After seven days, 400 pounds; after twenty- 
eight days, 480 pounds. 

Briquettes of 1 part cement to 3 parts standard sand: After 
seven days, 120 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 180 pounds.) 

(12) The highest result from each set of briquettes made at 
any one time is to be considered the governing test. Any 
cement not showing an increase of strength in the twenty- 
eight-day tests over the seven-day tests will be rejected. 

(13) When making briquettes well-dried cement and sand 
will be used; neat cement will be mixed with 20 per cent of 
water by weight, and sand and cement with 12 \ per cent of 
water by weight. After being thoroughly mixed and worked 
for five minutes, the cement or mortar will be placed in the 
briquette mould in four equal layers, and each layer rammed 
and compressed by thirty blows of a soft brass or copper rammer 
three-quarters of an inch in diameter (or seven-tenths of an 
inch square, with rounded corners), weighing 1 pound. It 
is to be allowed to drop on the mixture from a height of about 
half an inch. TVhen the ramming has been completed the 
surplus cement shall be struck off and the final layer smoothed 
with a trowel held almost horizontal and drawn back with 
sufficient pressure to make its edge follow the surface of the mould. 

(14) The above are to be considered the minimum require¬ 
ments. Unless a cement has been recently used on work 


-peckzcatkcsa : je cexema. 


9 


■■dex rAs office, bidders deliver a sample bans! for test 
fcer:ce tee c peter, e: of bids. If this sample rfucrws blarer tests 
tear, tease aimer stbomt tee atremae of tests made on sebse- 
qaent saipmerts rest come ep to those fcrrd with tee sample. 

It A cement map re rejected, in ease it fails to meet an7 
cr tee above rezydremerts- An met of tee contractor map 
be present at tee makAa of tee tests, cr. A case of the ram¬ 
iere of ir m of teem, teem mem be reseated A As cmsenee. 

■* — x. JE 

A tee zortnotor si iesires. tee ermreer c Acer A :Am mem. 

— ms j w 

if be deem. it to tee interest of tee felted States, mime ary 
:r iZ :f tie tests mm be :r repeated it scree reeogriaed star rare 
test Am lab*', rater - A Ae memer bereA spec Asm All expenses 
cf seize tests to be paid bj tee co r tract-:r. Ail state tests . s-e.il 
be made on samples frrished bj tee r earnest emcer Atm 
renerz aetmiilm -ieZ~tre: to Arm 


STANDARD rPKCIFIt ATI^NS FOR CEMENTS.* 


arm 


- e 


IT 151 Atotav Nirntrrme I X 


I. Gkisxil Coxdztt >zss —AZ cement sizaZ be Aspecteb 
2 Cement may be emrectea either at tee place A mammaatnre 

cr :n.A work 

S Im order to lot ample Arne :Zr iespeit.ee: are lemma, 
ter ismen* she A t be stored A a sAticA mateer-tapet beAd- 
ra lame tee rzca prcterly b leered er raised me tee 

erne A 

a The cement sAAl be stored A sezd a earner as to remit 
easy access i:r prper Aspect ee aea :ZeeeA:atAe A eaeZ shrp- 

een: 

5. leery facility seaZ re prim: A-i by tbe eceteazror, see a 
per<'d of a: Asst twelve- Ays allowed for tee Aspeetian mb ne¬ 
cessary tests. 

f Cement shAl be Afivwed A smrabie parkays Ate the 
tree and name rf mare Totem plaiolT nocked teeream 
7 A :&a of ctece: sbaZ e eram v4 pends rf zement ret. 
Each rarael A Firmand cement sbaZ eemam I baas, and race 


Tusse 5 CcC'. i n 1 zns imi icw ase-e by as . r. 





















10 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS. 


barrel of natural cement shall contain 3 bags of the above net 
weight. 

8. Cement failing to meet the seven-day requirements may be 

held awaiting the results of the twenty-eight-day tests before 
rejection. ^ 

9. All tests shall be made in accordance with the methods pro¬ 
posed by the Committee on Uniform Tests of Cement of the 
American Society of Civil Engineers, presented to the Society 
January 21, 1903, and amended January 20, 1904, and January 
15, 1908, with all subsequent amendments thereto. 

10. The acceptance or rejection shall be based on the following 
requirements: 

Natural Cement. 

11. Definition. —This term shall be applied to the finely pul¬ 
verized product resulting from the calcination of an argillaceous 
limestone at a temperature only sufficient to drive off the car¬ 
bonic acid gas. 

12. Fineness. —It shall leave by weight a residue of not more 
than 10 per cent on the No. 100, and 30 per cent on the No. 200 
sieve. 

13. Time of Setting. — It shall not develop initial set in less 
than ten minutes; and shall not develop hard set in less than 
thirty minutes, nor in more than three hours. 

14. Tensile Strength. —The minimum requirements for 
tensile strength for briquettes one square inch in cross-section 
shall be as follows, and the cement shall show no retrogression 
in strength within the periods specified: 

Neat Cement. # 

Age. Strength. 

24 hours in moist air . 75 lbs. 

7 days (1 day in moist air, 6 days in water). 150 ‘ 1 

28 “ (1 “ “ “ “ 27 “ “ “ ). 250 “ 

One part cement, three parts standard Ottawa sand: 

7 days (1 day in moist air, 6 days in water). 50 lbs. 

28 “ U “ *“ “ “ 27 “ “ “ ). 125 “ 

15. Constancy of Volume. —Pats of neat cement about 
three inches in diameter, one-half inch thick at center, tapering 
to a thin edge, shall be kept in moist air for a period of twenty- 
four hours. 

(a) A pat is then kept in air at normal temperature. 







SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS. 


11 


(b) Another is kept in water maintained as near 70° F. as 
practicable. 

16. These pats are observed at intervals for at least twenty- 
eight days, and, to satisfactorily pass the tests, shall remain firm 
and hard and show no signs of distortion, checking, cracking, or 
disintegrating. 

Portland Cement. 

17. Definition. —This term is applied to the finely pulverized 
product resulting from the calcination to incipient fusion of an 
intimate mixture of properly proportioned argillaceous and cal' 
careous materials, and to which no addition greater than 3 per 
cent has been made subsequent to calcination. 

18. Specific Gravity.— The specific gravity of cement shall 
not be less than 3.10. Should the test of cement as received fall 
below this requirement, a second test may be made upon a sam¬ 
ple ignited at a low red heat. The loss in weight of the ignited 
cement shall not exceed 4 per cent. 

19. Fineness. —It shall leave by weight a residue of not more 
than 8 per cent on the No. 100, and not more than 25 per cent on 
the No. 200 sieve. 

20. Time of Setting. —It shall not develop initial set in less 
than thirty minutes; and must develop hard set in not less than 
one hour, nor more than ten hours. 

21. Tensile Strength. —The minimum requirements for 
tensile strength for briquettes one square inch in cross-section 
shall be as follows, and the cement shall show no retrogression 
in strength within the periods specified: 


Neat Cement. 

Age. Strength. 

24 hours in moist air. 175 lbs. 

7 days (1 day in moist air, 6 days in water). 503 “ 

28 “ (1 “ “ “27 " “ “ ). 600 “ 

One part cement, three parts standard Ottawa sand: 

7 days (1 day in moist air, 6 days in water). 200 lbs. 

28 “ (i “ “ “ “ 27 “ “ “ . 275 “ 


22. Constancy of Volume. — Pats of neat cement about 
three inches in diameter, one-hal£ inch thick at the center, and 







12 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS, 


tapering to a thin edge, shall be kept in moist air for a period of 
twenty-four hours. 

(а) A pat is then kept in air at normal temperature and ob¬ 
served at intervals for at least twenty-eight days. 

(б) Another pat is kept in water maintained as near 70°F. as 
practicable, and observed at intervals for at least twenty-eight 
days. 

(c) A third pat is exposed in any convenient way in an atmos¬ 
phere of steam, above boiling water, in a loosely closed vessel 
for five hours. 

23. These pats, to satisfactorily pass the requirements, shall 
remain firm and hard, and show no signs of distortion, checking > 
cracking, or disintegrating. 

24. Sulphuric Acid and Magnesia. —The cement shall not 
contain more than 1.75 per cent of anhydrous sulphuric acid 
(S0 3 ), nor more than 4 per cent obmagnesia (MgO). 

Puzzolan Cement. — This was originally an imported 
cement, made from a natural burned material of volcanic origin, 
but the slag cements now being made are really Puzzolan 
cement and should be classed under that head. 

The so-called slag cement is the product obtained by pulver¬ 
izing, without calcination, a mixture of granulated basic blast¬ 
furnace slag and slaked lime. This product, though in reality 
a member of the class of Puzzolanic cements, is usually 
marketed as “Portland cement,” in spite of the fact that it 
differs from a true Portland cement in method of manufacture, 
ultimate and rational composition and properties. 

Some recent tests made with slag cement in the municipal 
laboratory at Vienna, gave the following results: The mortar 
was mixed one to three. After seven days hardening, tensile 
strength, 383 pounds per square inch; strength of compression, 
3880 pounds per square inch. After twenty-eight days harden¬ 
ing, tensile strength, 551 pounds per square inch; strength of 
compression, 5411 pounds per square inch. 

The following regarding Puzzolan or slag cement is taken 
from the professional papers of the United States Engineer 
Corps: 

Slag Cement. —This term is applied to cement made by 
intimately mixing by grinding together granulated blast-fur¬ 
nace slag of a certain quality and slaked lime, without calcina¬ 
tion subsequent to the mixing. This is the only cement of the 
Puzzolan class to be found in our markets (often branded as 
Portland), and as true Portland cement is now made having 


CEMLNTS. 


13 


slag for it's hydraulic base, the term “slag cement” should be 
dropped and the generic term Puzzolan be used in advertisements 
and specifications for such mixtures not subsequently calcined. 

Puzzolan cement made from slag is characterized physically 
by its light lilac color; the absence of grit attending fine grind¬ 
ing and the extreme subdivision of its slaked-lime element; 
its low specific gravity (2.6 to 2.8) compared with Portland 
(3 to 3.5); and by the intense bluish-green color in the fresh 
fracture after long submersion in water, due to the presence 
of sulphides, which color fades after exposure to dry air. 

The oxidation of sulphides in dry air is destructive of Puz¬ 
zolan cement mortars and concretes so exposed. Puzzolan is 
usually very finely ground, and when not treated with soda 
sets more slowly than 'Portland. It stands storage well, but 
cements treated with soda to quicken setting become again 
very slow-setting from the carbonization of the soda (as well 
as the lime) element after long storage.- 

Puzzolan cement properly made contains no free or anhy¬ 
drous lime, does not warp or swell, but is liable to fail from 
cracking and shrinking (at the surface only) in dry air. 

Mortars and concretes made from Puzzolan approximate in 
tensile strength similar mixtures of Portland cement, but their 
resistance to crushing is less, the ratio of crushing to tensile 
strength being about 6 or 7 to 1 for Puzzolan and 9 to 11 to 1 
for Portland. On account of its extreme fine grinding Puzzolan 
often gives nearly as great tensile strength in 3 to 1 mixtures as 
neat. 

Puzzolan permanently assimilates but little water compared 
with Portland, its lime being already hydrated. It should be 
used in comparatively dry mixtures well rammed, but while 
requiring little water for chemical reactions, it requires for 
permanency in the air constant or continuous moisture. 

Proper Uses of Puzzolan Cement. — Puzzolan cement 
never becomes extremely hard like Portland, but Puzzolan 
mortars and concretes are tougher or less brittle than Portland. 

The cement is well adapted for use in sea-water, and generally 
in all positions where constantly exposed to moisture, such as in 
foundations of buildings, sewers, and drains, and in underground 
works generally, and in the interior of heavy masses of masonry 
or concrete. 

It is unfit for use when subjected to mechanical wear, attrition, 
or blows. It should never be used where it may be exposed for 


14 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS. 


long periods to dry air, even after it has well set. It will turn 
white and disintegrate* due to the oxidation of its sulphides 
at the surface under such exposure. 

Sulphuretted hydrogen, which is often evolved upon decom¬ 
position of the sulphides in Puzzolan cement, is injurious to 
iron and steel. 

Such metals, if used in connection with Puzzolan cement 
should be protected, or an allowance be made for deterioration 
by increase of section.” 

Some more recent tests of slag cements show that they con¬ 
tain very little sulphur and analyses show, their composition 
to be practically the same as the best brands of Portland cements. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR PUZZOLAN CEMENT. 

Prepared by the U. S. Engineer Department. 

(1) The cement shall be a Puzzolan of uniform quality, 
finely and freshly ground, dry, and free from lumps, made by 
grinding together without subsequent calcination granulated 
blast-furnace slag with slaked lime. 

(2) The cement shall be put up in strong sound barrels well 
lined with paper, so as to be reasonably protected against 
moisture, or in stout cloth or canvas sacks. Each package 
shall be plainly labelled with the name of the brand and of the 
manufacturer. Any package broken or containing damaged 
cement may be rejected or accepted as a fractional package 
at the option of the United States agent in local charge. 

(3) Bidders will state the brand of cement which they pro¬ 
pose to furnish. The right is reserved to reject a tender for 
any brand which has not given satisfaction in use under cli¬ 
matic or other conditions of exposure of at least equal severity 
to those of the work proposed, and for any brand from cement 
works that do not make and test the slag used in the cement, 

(4) Tenders will be received only from manufacturers or 
their authorized agents. 

(The following paragraph will be substituted for paragraphs 
3 and 4 above when cement is to be furnished and placed by 
the contractor. 

No cement will be allowed to be used except established 
brands of high-grade Puzzolan cement which haye been in 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS. 


15 




successful use under similar climatic conditions to those of 
the proposed work and which come from cement works that 
make the slag used in the cement. 

(5) The average weight per barrel shall not be less than 330 
pounds net. Four sacks shall contain 1 barrel of cement. 
If the weight as determined by test weighings is found to be 
below 330 pounds per barrel, the cement may be rejected or, 
at the option of the engineer officer in charge, the contractor 
may be required to supply, free of cost to the United States, 
an additional amount of cement equal to the shortage. 

(6) Tests may be made of the fineness, specific gravity, 
soundness, time of setting, and tensile strength of the cement. 

(7) Fineness. —Ninety-seven per cent of the cement must 
pass through a sieve made of No. 40 wire, StublTs gauge, hav¬ 
ing 10,000 openings per square inch. 

(8) Specific Gravity. —The specific gravity of the cement, as 
determined from a sample which has been carefully dried, 
shall be between 2.7 and 2.8, 

(9) Soundness. —^To test the soundness of cement, pats of 
neat cement mixed fdr five minutes with 18 per cent of water 
by weight shall be made on glass, each pat about 3 inches in 
diameter and one-half inch thick at the centre, tapering thence 
to a thin edge. The pats are to be kept under wet cloths until 
finally set, when they are to be placed in fresh water. They 
should not show distortion or cracks at the end of twenty-eight 
days. 

(10) Time of Setting. —The cement shall not acquire its ini¬ 
tial set in less than forty-five minutes and shall acquire its 
final set in ten hours. The pats made to test the soundness 
may be used in determining the time of setting. The cement 
is considered to have acquired its initial set when the pat will 
bear, without being appreciably indented, a wire one-twelfth 
inch in diameter loaded to one-fourth pound weight The 
final set has been acquired when the pat will bear, without 
being appreciably indented, a wire one twenty-fourth inch in 
diameter loaded to 1 pound weight, 

: (11) Tensile Strength. —Briquettes made of neat cement, 

after being kept in air under a wet cloth for twenty-four hours 
and the balance of the time in water, shall develop tensile 
strengths per square inch as follows: 

After seven days, 350 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 500 

pounds. 


16 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS. 


Briquettes made of one part cement and three parts stand¬ 
ard sand by weight shall develop tensile strength per square 
inch as follows: 

After seven days, 140 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 220 
pounds. 

(12) The highest result from each set of. briquettes made at 
any one time is to be considered the governing test. Any 
cement not showing an increase of strength in the twenty- 
eight-day tests over the seven-day tests will be rejected. 

(13) When making briquettes neat cement will be' mixed 
with 18 per cent of water by weight, and sand and cement 
with 10 per cent of water by weight. After being thoroughly 
mixed and worked for five minutes the cement or mortar will 
be placed in the briquette mould in four equal layers and each 
layer rammed and compressed by thirty blows of a soft brass 
or copper rammer, three-quarters of an inch in diameter or 
seven-tenths of an inch square, with rounded corners, weigh¬ 
ing 1 pound. It is to be allowed to drop on the mixture from 
a height of about half an inch. When the ramming has been 
completed the surplus cement shall be struck off and the final 
layer smoothed with a trowel held almost horizontal and drawn 
back with sufficient pressure to make its edge follow the sui- 
face of the mould. 

(14) The above are to be considered the minimum require¬ 
ments. Unless a cement has been recently used on work 
under this office, bidders will deliver a sample barrel for test 
before the opening of bids. If this sample shows higher tests 
.than those given above, the average of tests made on subse¬ 
quent shipments must come up to those found with the sample. 

(15) A cement may be rejected in case it fails to meet any 
of the above requirements. An agent of the contractor may 
be present at the making of the tests, or, in case of the failure 
of any of them, they may be repeated in his presence. If the 
contractor so desires, the engineer officer in charge may, if 
he deems it to the interest of the United States, have any or 
all of the tests made or repeated at some recognized testing 
laboratory in the manner herein specified, all expenses of such 
tests to be paid by the contractor. All such tests shall be 
made on samples furnished by the engineer officer from cement 
actually delivered to him. 

Silica Cement, or Sand Cement.—This is a patented 
article manufactured by grinding together silica or clean sand 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT. 


17 


with Portland cement, by which process the original cementing 
material is made extremely fine and its capacity to cover sur¬ 
faces of concrete aggregates is much increased. 

The sand is an adulteration, but on account of the extreme 
fineness of the product it serves to make mortar or concrete 
containing a given proportion of pure cement much more dense, 
the finer material being increased in volume. 

The increase in cementing capacity due to the fine grinding 
of the cement constituent offsets, in great degree, the effects 
of the sand adulteration, so that sand cement made from equal 
weights of cement and sand approximates in tensile strength 
to the neat cement, and the material is sold as cement. 

The extreme fine grinding also improves cement that con¬ 
tains expansives, but nevertheless sand cement should not 
be purchased in the market, but should be made on the work 
from approved materials if used for other purposes than for 
grouting, for which it is peculiarly adapted. 


SHORT SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS. 

Natural Cement, —All natural cement must have a specific 
gravity of not less than 2.70, must be of such fineness that 
80 per Cent will pass through a No. 100 standard sieve, and 
briquettes made of such neat natural cement, after exposure 
to the air for one day and immersion in water for six days, 
must show a tensile strength of 90 pounds to the square inch. 
Pats § inch thick must stand same test hereinafter specified 
for Portland cement. 

Portland Cement. —All Portland cement must have a spe¬ 
cific gravity of not less than 3.10, must be of such fineness that 
90 per cent will pass through a No. 100 standard sieve, must not 
contain more than 2 per cent anhydrous sulphuric acid, nor 
4 per cent magnesia, and briquettes made of such neat Port¬ 
land cement, after exposure to the air for one day and immer¬ 
sion in water for six days, must show a tensile strength of 350 
pounds to the square inch. One-half-inch pats exposed to 
the air for seven days or immersed in water for the same time 
after hard set shall show no blotches, discolorations, checks, or 
signs of disintegration. 

Non-staining Cement. — Non-staining cement must be of a 
brand that has been in use for at least two years to test its 



18 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


non-staining qualities, have a specific gravity of not less than 
2.75, contain not more than 2 per cent sulphuric acid, nor 
more than 4 per cent magnesia, be of such fineness that 85 
per cent will pass through a No. 100 standard sieve, and bri¬ 
quettes of the neat cement, tested as specified for Portland 
cement, shall have a tensile strength of 200 pounds per square 
inch. 

All cement must be of uniform quality and when delivered 
must be in original packages with the brand and maker’s name 
marked thereon, and must be kept dry. 

Tests, etc., of Cement. —In ordinary work the pur¬ 
chaser can be guided as to the quality of the cement by the 
brand and name of the manufacturer, unless the cement is of a 
standard brand and make, and which has been thoroughly tested 
in the past by use, etc., it should not be used on any important 
work until it has been tested. This is best done at some labora¬ 
tory equipped for the purpose. 

The following rules have been adopted by the U. S. Engineer 
Corps for testing cement, and should be a good guide for any 
person testing cement. 

General Considerations. —The constructing engineer is 
confronted by no problem more difficult than to decide w hether 
a certain cement, when placed in a work, w ill behave in a pre¬ 
determined way. This is especially true of Portlands. Other 
cements are much more reliable under conditions of exposure 
for which they are suited. 

The difficulties arise from the fact that tests for acceptance 
or rejection must be made on a product not in its final stage. 
A cement, when incorporated in masonry, undergoes for months 
chemical changes in the process of setting, so that the material 
subjected to strains in the work is not the material tested, 
but a derivative of it. The object of tests is to establish two 
probabilities: First, that the product of the given cement 
will develop the desired strength and hardness soon enough 
to enable it to bear the stresses designed for it; second, that 
it wfill never thereafter fall below that strength and hardness. 
Up to the present time it appears that the relation between 
the chemical and physical properties of raw cement and of 
its partially indurated derivatives, determined by tests, and 
the physical properties of the same cement or its derivatives, 
after complete hydration and induration in the work, can 
be stated only within rather wide limits. 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


19 


The most useful tests of cements are those, first, 'which con¬ 
nect themselves definitely with some serious defect to which 
cements are subject, or with some merit which they should 
possess; second, which can be made with the least apparatus 
and manipulation, and which give their indications in the 
shortest time; and, third, which are freest from personal equa¬ 
tion and from influences of local surroundings. These criteria, 
applied to the customary tests of cements, give indications 
as to their relative value and the best methods of making them. 

Test of Grinding. —This test derives importance from the 
fact, apparently well established, that, other things being equal, 
the finer the cement the greater will be its sand-carrying capac- 
itv; that is, it will show greater strength with the same charge 
of sand, or equal strength with a greater charge. According to 
the best information the Board can obtain, the cementitious 
value of this material is believed to reside principally, if not 
wholly, in the very fine part. It follows that a grinding test 
should be directed to determining the proportion which it 
very fine rather than the residue above a certain size. The 
Board does not propose any change in the accepted grinding 
test of Portland cement, but favors for natural cement the 
use of the same size screen as for Portland, No. 100, with the 
requirement that SO per cent shall pass through it. The screen 
should be frequently examined, magnified, if practicable, to 
see that no wires are displaced, leaving apertures larger than 
the normal. 

Test for Specific Graytty. —This test is made with simple 
appliances, and its result is immediately known. It appears 
to connect itself quite definitely with the degree of calcination 
which the cement has received. The higher the burning, short 
of vitrification, the better the cement and the higher the specific 
g r a v it y . 

This test has another value, in that the adulterations of 
Portland cement most likely to be practised and most to be 
feared are made with materials which reduce the specific gravity. 
The test is therefore of value in determining a properly burned, 
lion-adulterated Portland. If underburned, the specific gravity 
may fall below 3; it may reach 3.5 if the cement has been over- 
burned. No other hydraulic cement is so heavy in proportion 
to volume, natural cement having a specific gravity of about 
2.5 to 2.S and Puzzolan (siag) of about 2.7 to 2.8. Properly 
burned Portland, adulterated with slag, will fall below 3.1. 


20 


TESTS, ETC., OP CEMENT. 


Test of Activity. —This test, made by gauging the cement 
with water and observing the times of initial and permanent 
set, is partly direct and partly indirect. It is direct in so far 
as its limits relate to the time necessary to get the cement in 
place after mixing, which must not be greater than the time of 
initial set, and to the time within which the cement product 
must take its load, which must not be less than the time of 
permanent set. It is indirect in so far as its limits relate to the 
probable final strength, elasticity, and hardness of the cement 
mixtures. In the latter respect it appears to be reasonably 
well established that cements exhibiting great activity give, 
after long periods, results inferior to those with action less 
rapid. 

The test for activity is easily made with simple appliances, 
and its results are known in a few hours at most. Variable 
results in the test are caused by different local conditions of 
moisture and temperature and by the different judgments 
of observers as to whether the needles penetrate or not. Gen¬ 
erally speaking, both periods of set are lengthened by increase 
of moisture and shortened by increase of temperature. Some 
•manufacturers claim that their cements show their best results 
when gauged with particular percentages of water. It is not 
considered good policy to encourage these peculiarities at the 
expense of the uniformity of tests which is so greatly desired. 
It is better to adopt a definite proportion of water for gauging 
and require all cements of the same class to stand or fall on 
their showing when so gauged. Such a percentage, adopted 
and known, will probably be used by manufacturers in testing 
goods sold to the Engineer Department, and a greater har¬ 
mony between mill and field tests of the same cement will 
result. 

In gauging Portland cement the samples should be thoroughly 
dried before adding water. This precaution is not deemed 
necessary with natural cement. Sufficient uniformity of 
temperature will result if the testing-room be comfortably 
warmed in winter and the specimens be kept out of the sun 
in a cool room in summer and under a damp cloth until set. 

Test for Constancy of Volume. —This test results from 
observations made on the pats or cakes used in the setting 
test. It derives its value from its connection with the quantity 
of expansives in the cement. 

The test is easy to make, and its results are relatively free 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


21 


from personal error, though there is room for a difference of 
judgment as to the appearance of the cakes. As they may 
be preserved and the decision reviewed at any time on the 
original data, such differences are immaterial. 

Tests op Strength. —These may be subdivided into compres¬ 
sive and tensile tests, the latter including the transverse test 
made by breaking a beam of the cement. The compressive 
test need not be further considered, as it is less easily made 
than the tensile test and gives no surer indications. The ratio 
of compressive to tensile strength of the same class of cements 
is quite uniform. 

Of the tensile tests the direct pull is preferable to the flexure 
test. 

The tensile test is theoretically a perfect index of the quality 
of the cement at the periods of test, and a comparison at dif¬ 
ferent periods gives the best obtainable indication of what its 
subsequent conduct will be. In the opinion of the Board the 
two periods most generally adopted, seven and twenty-eight 
days after mixing, are, on the whole, the best. The one-day 
test, though of some value in a discriminating sense, should 
not be piaced in the same category as the other periods 
named. 

The apparatus for tensile tests is somewhat elaborate and 
delicate, but is of standard manufacture and readily obtainable 
at relatively small cost. 

In respect of uncertainties due to the personal equation of 
the tester and to the influence of local conditions this test pre¬ 
sents greater difficulties than any of the others considered. 
The most scrupulous care must be observed in the manipula¬ 
tions, and the tester should possess natural aptitude for such 
work. The object is to determine the greatest stress per square 
inch which the cement can be made to stand under given con¬ 
ditions without rupture. If the conditions have been carefully 
observed and several discrepant results are obtained, the highest 
may be right, but the others are certainly wrong. No averaging 
should be done. 

The remarks made above under the activity test as to the 
relation between early hydraulic intensity and the final excel¬ 
lence of a cement product are equally applicable to the indica¬ 
tions from tensile tests. A cement which tests moderately 
high at seven days and shows a substantial increase to twenty- 
eight days is more likely to reach the maximum strength slowly 


22 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


and retain it indefinitely with a low modulus of elasticity than 
a cement which tests abnormally high at seven days with little 
or no increase at twenty-eight days. 

Accelerated Tests. —The rules recommended by the com¬ 
mittee of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 have 
been substantially accepted here and abroad as to tests of 
setting qualities and soundness; more rapid tests for soundness 
are, however, proposed and practised, though no accelerated 
test has been generally accepted. 

Accelerated tests proposed for the speedy detection of the 
presence of expansives in cement usually consist in the appli¬ 
cation, after gauging, of dry heat or of immersion in warm or 
boiling water or steam. The immersion tests are most in 
vogue. They vary from immersing freshly gauged pats on 
glass plates in water at 115° F. for twenty-four hours, or at 
higher temperatures for various periods, to steaming or boil¬ 
ing cakes or cylinders of the material to be tested at 212° F. 
for varying times. 

In France and Germany the swelling or expansion of boiled 
cylinders is measured directly by calibration. Usually change 
of volume not accompanied by visible evidences of it—i.e., dis¬ 
tortion or disruption—is not observed in American tests pre¬ 
scribed in specifications for the reception of cements. Of all 
these tests the boiling test is the simplest, requires only appa¬ 
ratus everywhere available, and is recommended by the Board. 
It has been the experience that this test detects material that 
is unsound by reason of the presence of active expansives; 
but in some cases it rejects material that would give satisfac¬ 
tory results in actual work and will reject material that would 
stand this test after air slaking. 

The great value of the test lies in its short-time indications 
and in at once directing attention to weak points in the cement 
to be further observed or guarded against. Of two or more 
cements offered for use or on hand, the cements that stand the 
boiling tests are to be taken preferably; it should be con¬ 
stantly applied on the work among other simple tests to be 
noted, for although the boiling test sometimes rejects suitable 
material, it is believed that it will always reject a material un¬ 
sound by reason of the existence of active expansives. Sul¬ 
phate of lime, while enabling cements to pass the boiling tests, 
introduces an element of danger. 

This test is proposed as suggestive or discriminative only. 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


23 


Except for -works of unusual importance it is not recommended 
that a cement passing the other tests proposed shall be rejected 
on the boiling test. 

Tests to be Made. —For selecting Portland and Puzzolan 
cements from among the brands offered, the Board recommends 
that the following tests be made: 

1. For fineness of grinding. 

2. For specific gravity. 

3. For soundness or constancy of volume in setting. 

4. For time of setting. 

5. For tensile strength. 

For natural cement we recommend the omission of the 
specific-gravity and soundness tests. 

On the works the Board recommends simple tests when the 
more elaborate tests cannot well be made. 

In determining the minimum requirements for cements 
given in the subjoined specifications we recognize that many 
cements that attain only fair strength neat and with sand in a 
short time and show marked gains of strength on further time 
will f ulfil the requirements of the service, and that unusu¬ 
ally high tensile strength attained in a few days after gaug¬ 
ing is often coupled with a small or negative increase in strength 
in further short intervals. Unusually high tests in a short 
time after gauging should be regarded with suspicion, although 
some well-known brands of American cements show great 
strength in short-time tests and, so far as observed, are reliable 
in air and fresh water. Cements offered under such known 
brands should show their characteristic strength and other 
qualities or be suspected as spurious or adulterated, if not 
rejected, even though the minimum requirements of the speci¬ 
fications are met. The practice of offering a bonus or free 
gift of money in addition to the contract price for cement 
testing above a fixed high point should be prohibited as un¬ 
necessary, for cements so obtained are likely to be unsound 
in a manner not easily detected in the time usually available 
in testing. 

It is believed that most of the very high-testing Portland 
cements have lime in excess, the effect of which is tempo¬ 
rarily masked by the use of sulphate of lime. Overlimed 
cements so treated are unfit for use in sea-water. For such 
uses a chemical analysis should be required, and the quantity 
of sulphuric acid, as well as magnesia, be limited to a low per- 


24 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


centage. 1 It is not yet known that sulphate of lime in quan¬ 
tity less than 2 per cent is injurious to cements to be used in 
fresh water or in air. It masks expansives that might ulti¬ 
mately cause the destruction of the work, but it is not' known 
whether this effect is permanent. Its addition is now deemed 
necessary to control time of setting. It makes a quick-setting 
cement slow setting, at the same time increasing tensile strength 
acquired in a short time. 

Manipulation of Cements for Tests..— I. Fineness .— 
Place 100 parts (denominations determined by subdivisions 
of the weighing-machine used) by weight on a sieve with 100 
holes to the linear inch, woven from brass wire No. 40, Stubb’s 
wire gauge; sift by hand or mechanical shaker until cement 
ceases to pass through. 

The weight ^f the material passing the sieve plus the weight 
of the dust lost in air, expressed in hundredths of the original 
weight, will express the percentage of fineness. In order to 
determine this percentage the residue on the sieve should be 
weighed. 

It is only the impalpable dust that possesses cementitious 
value. Fineness cf grinding is therefore an essential quality 
in cements to be mixed with sand. The residue on a sieve of 
100 meshes to the inch is of no cementitious value, and even 
the grit retained on a sieve of 40,000 openings to the square 
inch is of small value. The degree of fineness prescribed in 
these specifications (92 per cent) for Portland through a sieve 
of 10,000 meshes to the square inch is quite commonly attained 
in high-grade American cements, but rarely in imported brands. 
On the Pacific Coast, where foreign cements mainly are in the 
market, this requirement may be lowered for the present to 
87 per cent on No. 100 sieve. 

II. Specific Gravity . — The standard temperature for specific- 
gravity determinations is 62° F., but for cement testing temper¬ 
atures may vary between 60° and 80° F. without affecting 
results more than the probable error in the observation. 

Use any approved form of volumenometer or specific-gravity 
bottle, graduated to cubic centimeters with decimal subdivisions. 
Fill instrument to zero of the scale with benzine, turpentine, 
or some other liquid having no action upon cements. 


1 Not more than 4 per cent, by weight, of magnesia, 2 per cent of sulphuric 
anhydride, or 2 per cent of sulphate of lime should be allowed in any case. 
In sea-water not exceeding one-half these quantities. 



TESTS. ETC., OF CEMENT. 


25 

Take 100 grams of sifted cement that has been previously 
dried by exposure on a metal plate for twenty minutes to a 
dry heat of 212° F., and allow it to pass slowly into the fluid 
of the volumenometer, taking care that the powder does not 
stick to the sides of the graduated tube above the fluid and 
that the funnel through which it is introduced does not touch 
the fluid. 

Head carefully the volume of the displaced fluid to the nearest 
fraction of a cubic centimeter. Then the approximate specific 
gravity will be represented by 100 divided by the displacement 
in cubic centimeters. 

The operation requires care. 

III. Setting QwzKtic* mnd So u nd ne s s . — The quantity of water 
and the temperature of water and air affect the time of setting. 
The specifications contemplate a temperature varying not 
more than 10° from 62 s F. and quantities of water given herein: 

For Portland cements use about 20 per cent of water. 

For Puzzolan cements use about 18 per cent of water. 

For natural cements use about 30 per cent of water. 

These quantities are for the cements as taken from the 
packages. 

Mix thoroughly for five minutes, vigorously rubbing the 
mixture under pressure; time to be estimated from moment 
of adding water and to be considered of importance. 

Make on gla$ plates two cakes from the mixture about 
3 inches in diameter. § inch thick at middle, and drawn to thin 
edges, and cover them with a damp doth or place them in a 
tight box not exposed to currents of dry air. At the end of 
the time specified for initial set apply the needle Hi inch diam . er 
weighted to 1 pound to one of the cakes. If an indentati n is 
made the cement passes the requirement for initial setting, if 
no indentation k made by the needle it k too quick-setting. 
At the end erf the time specified for “final set” apply the needle 
Is* inch diameter loaded to 1 pound. The cement cake should 
not be indent ed- 

Expose the two cakes to air under damp doth for twenty- 
four hours. Race one of the cakes, still- attached to its plate, 
in water for twenty-eight days; the other cake immerse in 
water at about 70° temperature supported in a rack above the 
bottom of the receptacle; rake the water gradually to the 
boiling-point and maintain this temperature for six hours anfi 
let the water with cake immersed cooL Examine the 



26 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


cakes at the proper time for evidences of expansion and dis¬ 
tortion. Should the boiled cake become detached from the 
plate by twisting and warping or show expansion cracks the 
cement may be rejected, or it may await the result of twenty- 
eight days in water. If the fresh-water cake shows no evi¬ 
dences of swelling, the cement may be used in ordinary work 
in air or fresh water for lean mixtures. If distortion or expan¬ 
sion cracks are shown on the fresh-water cake, the cement 
should be rejected. 

Of two or more cements offered, all of which will stand the 
fresh-water-cake test for soundness, the cements that will stand 
the boiling tests also are to be preferred. 

IV. Tensile Strength .—Neat Tests: Use thoroughly dried 
unsifted cements. 1 * * * * Place the amount to be mixed on a smooth, 
non-absorbent slab; make a crater in the middle sufficient to 
hold the water; add nearly all the water at once, the remainder 
as needed; mix thoroughly by turning with the trowel, and 
vigorously rub or work the cement for five minutes. 

Place the mould on a glass or slate slab. Fill the mould with 
consecutive layers of cement, each when rammed to be J inch 
thick. Tap each layer 30 taps with a soft brass or copper 
rammer weighing 1 pound and having a face f inch diameter 
or 7 io inch square with rounded comers. The tapping or ram¬ 
m i ng is to be done as follows: While holding the forearm and 
wrist at a constant level, raise the rammer with the thumb and 
forefinger about \ inch and then let it fall freely, repeating the 
ope rat ion until the layer is uniformly compacted by 30 taps. 

This method is intended to compact the material in a man¬ 
ner similar to actual practice in const ruction, when a metal 
r amm er is used weighing 30 pounds, with circular head 5 inches 
in di am eter falling about 8 inches upon layers of mortar or 
concrete 3 inches thick. The method permits comparable 
results to be obtained by different observers. 

After filling the mould and ramming the last layer, strike 
smooth with the trowel, tap the mould lightly in a direction 
parallel to the base plate to prevent adhesion to the plate, and 


1 The hot clinker is often suddenly chilled by steam or water in order to 

reduce the work of grinding by first cracking it. This water, as well as 

that absorbed from the air, should always be expelled or its percentage 

ascertained and deducted from the amounts prescribed for briquettes* 

Sand, also, should be s imilar ly treated. 




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-S - ' z tiBBE ’ I I -" ZZ'^z 


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mz zee: 

















































28 


TESTS, ETC., OP CEMENT. 


Portland cements well dried require water from 10 to 12$ 
per cent by weight of constituent sand and cement for maxi¬ 
mum ultimate strength in tested briquettes. 

Puzzolan, about 9 to 10 per cent. 

Natural, about 15 to 17 per cent. 

Mixtures that at first appear too dry for testing purposes 
often become more plastic under the prolonged working re¬ 
quired herein. 

In general, about four briquettes constitute the maximum 
number that may be made well within the time required for 
initial setting of moderately slow-setting cements. 

Three such batches of sand mixtures should be made, and 
one briquette of each batch may be broken at seven and twenty- 
eight days, giving three tests at each period. At least one 
batch of neat cement briquettes should be made. 

If the first briquette broken at each date fulfils the mini¬ 
mum requirement of these specifications it is not necessary to 
break others which may be reserved for long-time tests. 

If the first briquette does not pass the test for tensile strength, 
then briquettes may be broken until six briquettes, two from 
each batch, have been broken at seven days, and the remain¬ 
ing six reserved for twenty-eight-day tests. The highest result 
from any sample is to be taken as the strength of the sample 
when the break is at the least section of briquette. 

If, on the twenty-eight-day tests, the cement not only more 
than fulfils the minimum requirements of these specifications, 
but also shows unusual gain in strength, it may still be accepted 
if the other tests are satisfactory, notwithstanding a low seven- 
day test, if early strength is not a matter of importance. Such 
cements are likely to be permanent. 

For a batch of four briquettes, the following quantities are 
suggested as in accord with these specifications. Water is 
measured by fluid-ounce volumes, not by weight, temperature 
varying not more than 10° from 62° F. 

Portland Cement.— Neat: 20 ounces of cement, 4 ounces of 
water. Mix wet five minutes. 

Sand: 15 ounces sand, 5 ounces cement, 2$ ounces water. 
Mix thoroughly dry; then mix wet five minutes. 

Puzzolan Cement. —Neat: 20 ounces cement, 3f ounces 
water. Mix wet five minutes. 

Sand: 15 ounces sand, 5 ounces cement, 2 ounces water. 
Mix thoroughly dry: then mix wet five minutes. 




TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 29 

Natural Cerricnt. —Neat: 20 ounces cement, 6 ounces water. 
Mix wet five minutes. 

Sand: 10 ounces cement, 10 ounces sand, 3J ounces water. 
Mix dry; then wet for five minutes. 

For measuring tensile strength, a machine that applies the 
stress automatically at a uniform rate is preferable to one 
controlled entirely by hand. 

These specifications for tensile strength contemplate the 
application of stress at the rate of 400 pounds per minute to 
briquettes made as prescribed herein. A rate so rapid as to 
approximate a blow or so slow as to approximate a continued 
stress will give very different results. 

The tests for tensile strength are to be made immediately after 
taking from the water or while the briquettes are still wet. The 
temperature of the water during immersion should be main¬ 
tained as nearly constant as practicable; not less than 50° 
nor more than 70° F. 

The tests are to be made upon briquettes 1 inch square at 
place of rupture. The specifications contemplate the use of 
the form of briquette recommended by the committee of the 
American Society of Civil Engineers, held when tested by 
close-fitting metal clips, without rubber or other yielding con¬ 
tacts. The breaks considered in the tests are to be those occur¬ 
ring at the smallest section, 1 inch square. 

Simple Tests. —-Tests of cement received upon a work in 
progress must often be of much simpler character than pre¬ 
scribed herein. 

Tests on the work are mainly to ascertain whether the arti¬ 
cle supplied i3 genuine cement, of a brand previously tested 
and accepted, and whether it is a reasonably sound and active 
cement that will set hard in the desired time, and give a good, 
hard mortar. Simple tests may give this information, and 
such should be multiplied whether or not more elaborate tests 
be made. Pats and balls of cement and mortar from the store¬ 
house and mixing platform or machine should be frequently 
made. The setting or hardening qualities, as determined 
roughly by estimating time and by pressure of the thumb-nail, 
should be observed; the hardness of the set and strength, 
by cracking the hardened pats or cakes between the fingers, 
and by dropping the balls from the height of the arm upon 
a pavement or stone and observing the result of the impact. 

By placing the pats in water as soon as hardened sufficiently 


30 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


and raising the temperature to the boiling-point for a few 
hours and observing the character and color of the fracture 
after sufficient immersion, information as to the character of 
the material, whether hydraulic, a Portland, or Puzzolan, 
whether too fresh or possibly “ blowy, 1 ” may be speedily and 
quite well ascertained without measuring instruments. 

Many engineers and users of cements regard such simple 
tests, taken in connection with the weight and fineness of the 
cement and the apparent texture and hardness of the mortars 
and concretes in the work, sufficient field tests of a material 
of known repute. The more elaborate tests, described above, 
should be made in well-equipped laboratories by skilled cement 
testers. 

Classification of Tests. —The tests to be made are two 
classes. 

(1) Purchase tests on samples furnished by bidders to as¬ 
certain whether the bidder may be held on the sample to the 
delivery of suitable material, should his offer be accepted. 

(2) Acceptance tests on samples taken at random from 
deliveries, to ascertain whether the material supplied accords 
with the purchase sample, or is suitable for the purpose of 
the work, as stated in the specifications for cement supplies. 

(1) Purchase tests .—Under these specifications bids for Port¬ 
land cements will be restricted to brands that- have been ap¬ 
proved after at least three years’ exposure in successful use 
under similar conditions to those of the proposed work. This 
specification limits proposals to manufacturers of cement of 
established repute, and in so far lessens the dependence to be 
placed upon tests of single samples of cement in determining 
the probable quality of the cements offered, that sample pack¬ 
ages may not be required with the proposals when the brand 
is known to the purchaser. When the cement is not known 
to the purchasing officer by previous use, a barrel of it should 
be required as representing the quality of cement to be sup¬ 
plied. A full set of tests should be made from this sample, 
and subsequent deliveries be required to .show quality at least 
equal to the sample. 

In this connection it is advisable in districts where well- 
equipped laboratories have been established, that sample 
packages of the cements in use in that territory, as sold in 
the open market, be obtained and tested as occasion offers to 
ascertain the characteristic qualities of the brands as commer- 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 31 

cial articles, the information to be used in subsequent pur¬ 
chases of cements. 

When purchase samples are waived, acceptance tests should 
be based upon the known qualities of the brand, as shown by 
previous tests. 

The sample barrel should not be- broken further than to 
take therefrom the necessary samples for testing. After¬ 
wards it should be put away in a dry place and kept for fur¬ 
ther testing, should the results obtained be disputed. 

(2) Acceptance tests .—The tests to be made on cements 
delivered under contract depend not only on the extent, character, 
and importance of the work itself, but also on the time available 
between the delivery and the actual use of the material. 

(а) On very important and extensive works, equipped with 
a testing laboratory and adequate storehouses, where cement 
may be kept at least thirty days before being required for use, 
full and elaborate tests should be made, keeping in view the 
fact that careful tests of few samples are more valuable than 
hurried tests of many samples. 

(б) On active works of ordinary character, when time will 
not permit full tests, and on small works where the expenses 
of laboratory are not justified, the tests must necessarily be 
limited to such reasonable precautions against the acceptance 
and use of unfit material as may be taken in the usually short 
interval between the receipt and use of the material. 

Such conditions were in view in formulating the specifica¬ 
tion that proposals will be received from manufacturers of 
such cements only as have been proved by at least three years* 
use under similar conditions of exposure. Of the tests named 
in the specifications, those for fineness, activity or hydraulicity, 
specific gravity, weight of packages, and accelerated tests for 
indications as to soundness, may be made within two days 
after the receipt of the material and with a very small outlay 
for instruments.^ 

Cement of established repute, shown by specific gravity 
and fineness to be properly burnt and ground, or normal for 
the brand, that will set hard in reasonable time, the cakes 
snapping with a clean fracture when broken between the 
fingers, and standing the tests above named, may be accepted 
and used with reasonable certainty of success. Nevertheless, 
packages taken at random from the deliveries should occasion¬ 
ally be set aside and samples taken therefrom sent to a testing 


32 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 

laboratory for the more elaborate tests for tensile strength 
(and for soundness should the boiling tests not be conclusive). 
The final acceptance and payment for such cement as may not 
have been actually placed in the work should, by agreement, 
be made to depend upon such tests. 

In all cases where cement has been long stored it should be 
carefully tested before use to ascertain whether it has deterio¬ 
rated in strength. 

Should the simple tests give unsatisfactory or suspicious 
results, then a full series of tests should be carefully 
made. 

When Portland cement is in question the specific-gravity 
and fineness tests should be made to guard against adultera¬ 
tion, and in all cases test weighings should be made to guard 
against short weights. 

In cases where the amount of cement or the importance of 
the work will not justify the purchase of the simple apparatus 
required for the specific gravity, fineness, and boiling tests, 
the cement can be accepted on the informal tests mentioned 
herein, which require no apparatus whatever, but in such 
cases cements well known to the purchaser by previous use 
should be selected and purchased directly from the manu¬ 
facturer or his selling agent in order that responsibility for 
the cement may be fixed. 

Certified tests by professional inspectors made as prescribed 
herein on samples taken from the cement to be shipped to 
the work, in a manner analogous to that cutsomary among 
engineers in the purchase of structural steel and iron, may 
be required in such cases. 

Sampling. —The entire package from parts of which tests are 
to be made is to be regarded as the sample tested. It should be 
marked with a distinctive mark that must also be applied to any 
part tested. The package should be set aside and protected 
against deterioration until all results from tests made from it 
are reached and accepted by both parties to the contract for 
supplies. 

Cement drawn from several sample packages should not be 
mixed or mingled, but the individuality of each sample pack¬ 
age should be preserved. 

In testing it should be borne in mind that a few tests from 
any sample, carefully made, are more valuable than many 
made with less care. 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


33 


The amount of material to be taken for formal tests is indi¬ 
cated herein where weights of the constituents of four briquettes 
are given, to which should be added the amount necessary 
for the tests for specific gravity, activity, and soundness. 

In extended tests the material should be taken from the 
sample package from the heads and centre of barrel, and from 
the ends and centre of bag, by such an instrument as is used 
by inspectors of flour. All material taken from the same sample 
package may be thoroughly mixed or mingled and the tests 
be made therefrom as showing the true character of the con¬ 
tents of the sample package. 

In making formal tests at the work for acceptance of cement 
sample packages should be taken at random from among sound 
packages. The number taken must depend upon the impor¬ 
tance and character of the work, the available time, and the 
capacity of the permanent laboratory force. For tensile 
strength the tests with sand are considered the more impor¬ 
tant and should always be made. Tests neat should be made 
if time permits. 

It is not necessary in any case on a large work to test more 
than 10 per cent of the deliveries, even of doubtful cement, - 
and a much less number of samples may be taken should no 
cause for distrust be revealed by the tests made. In very 
important work of small extent each package may be tested. 
A cement should be rejected if the samples show dangerous 
variation in quality or lack of care in manufacture and result¬ 
ing lack of uniformity in the produce without regard to the 
proportion of failures among samples tested. 

In all cases in the use of cements the informal or simple 
tests of the character named herein should be constantly car¬ 
ried on. These constitute most valuable tests. Whenever 
any faulty material is indicated by such tests, elaborate tests 
should be at once instituted and should the fault be confirmed, 
the cement delivered and not used should be rejected and the 
use of the brand be discontinued. 

Tests fob Weight. — From time to time packages should be 
weighed in gross and afterwards the weight of neat cement 
and tare of the packages determined. If short weight of neat 
cement is indicated, a sufficient number of packages should be 
weighed and the average net weight per package ascertained 
with sufficient certainty to afford a satisfactory basis of settle¬ 
ment 


u 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


The user of cement may make some simple tests to deter¬ 
mine the quality of the cement as follows: 

Soundness. —To test the soundness of the cement, take 
a lamp-chimney with a large swell to it and stand it on end; 
fill it with dry cement and then pour water on the cement; if 
the glass cracks the cement is unfit for use in any damp place. 

The cement can be tested as to the time the initial set takes 
place; as a rule the longer it takes the cement to set the stronger 
it will be. 

A simple test can be made by mixing some cement with 
just enough water to make it plastic, and roll it into a ball 
about the size of a walnut; after it sets in the air for about 
two hours, place it under water for three or four days If it 
gradually becomes harder with no cracks it is an indication 
of good cement. 

Expansion. —A cement that will expand should not be 
used. To test this make a cake of cement and let it remain 
in the air until it sets, then put it under water for a few days; if 
any cracks appear around the edge of the cake it indicates 
expansion and should be rejected. This sometimes happens 
with newly made cement, and age will overcome it. The 
test for soundess will also generally show if the cement will 
expand. 

Non-staining Cement. —In setting or pointing marble or 
limestones or other porous stones a reliable brand of a non¬ 
staining cement should be used, as Portland or Rosendale 
cement will stain the stone enough to disfigure it. This is a 
patent cement called La Farge, which is usually made from a 
limestone having hydraulic qualities. Some of the foreign 
Puzzolan cements also possess this non-staining feature. 


PRACTICAL CEMENT TESTS NOT REQUIRING A 
LABORATORY* 

The purchaser can send samples of cement to chemists or 
engineers who make a specialty of such work, or he can purchase 
some of the apparatus they use and make the tests himself. An 
outfit will cost not less than $200, and may run up as high as a 
man wishes to go. To make tests with the regulation apparatus 


* By Ernest* McCullough, C. E., Chicago, Ill. 





TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


35 


requires a well-trained man, and it is not possible that all cement 
users will become expert. Neither is it likely that all cement 
users will go to the expense of having cement tested by experts. 

There are many cements on the market, and all dealers do 
not know the difference between them. Long storage under 
improper conditions has a bad effect on Portland cement. It 
is therefore a proper thing that cement users should know what 
tests to make to enable them to secure a Portland cement, and 
also to know when that is of good quality. 

The writer proposes to describe a few simple tests any in¬ 
telligent man can make, and the total cost of the apparatus 
should be less than ten dollars. 

Fineness. —It is agreed that the impalpable dust alone 
possesses cementitious properties. Fineness of grinding is 
therefore an essential quality in cements to be mixed with 
sand. 

Weigh in a balance (not spring scales) two or three ounces of 
cement. It is well to use the metric system of weights, so that 
percentages can be readily determined. Place about fifty 
grams in a standard No. 100 sieve with cover. Take this sieve 
in your right hand and hold in a slightly inclined position. 
Shake it at the rate of about 200 shakes per minute, tapping 
it gently against the ball of the left hand. To accelerate the 
process some shot can be placed in the sieve. If more than 
eight per cent by weight is retained on the sieve the cement 
should be rejected. 

It is agreed that the proportion of very fine material is most 
important. If a man cares to take the time and is insisting 
upon a very fine cement, he can use a standard No. 200 sieve 
and reject a cement that leaves more than twenty-five per cent 
on the sieve. 

Before using the standard screen the cement to be tested 
should be passed through a No. 20 screen to remove lumps and 
then be dried at a heat which would boil water. 

The reason the test for fineness is recommended first is that 
the cement will surely be valueless if not finely ground. This 
test, however, does not indicate a Portland cement except m 
the 'hands of an experienced cement tester. Even an expert 
would not say any cement was either nat ural or Portland simply 
after a sieving test. The standard requirements call for a 
residue for natural cement not exceeding ten per cent on a 
No. 100 sieve and thirty per cent on a No. 200 sieve. 


36 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


Rate of Setting. —Natural cement will develop an initial 
set in ten minutes and a hard set in half an hour. Portland 
cement should develop an initial *set in not less than thirty 
minutes and a hard set in not less than one hour, nor more than 
ten hours, in a room varying not more than 10 degrees from a 
temperature of 62 degrees Fahrenheit, for the rate of setting 
depends upon the temperature and also upon the amount of 
moisture. 

For this test the operator should wear rubber gloves. Upon 
a heavy glass or slate plate place the cement in a heap and 
form a crater in the center. Add about twenty per cent of its 
weight of water and commence to shovel the cement from the 
outside into the water until it is all absorbed. This should 
take not more than a minute. Then knead it vigorously with 
the hands, like kneading dough, for not more than one minute 
and a half. Make a ball quickly of this cement and toss it from 
. hand to hand six times, the hands being about six inches apart. 
Then form it quickly into pats with as little unnecessary handling 
as possible and with very slight pressure, and no troweling or 
tamping. These pats are to be about half an inch thick in the 
center, and come to a fine edge all round. Make them on pieces 
of perfectly clean glass about four inches square. When it 
takes a slight pressure to indent the pat with the thumb nail 
the initial set has commenced. 

A better way is to have two pieces of straight wire to use as 
testing needles. One should be one-twelfth of an inch in 
diameter and the other one twenty-fourth of an inch. The 
thick wire should have a four-ounce weight on one end and the 
other end should be ground perfectly flat. The smaller wire 
should have a one-pound weight on one end and the other end 
should be flat. The wires can be seven or eight inches long. 
A small wooden frame can be whittled with a knife and tacked 
together with small brads so that the wires can be held perfectly 
upright in it and move freely. The writer made one out of 
pieces of cigar box. When the time has passed in which the 
initial set was to have commenced, put a pat under the frame 
and gently lower the thick wire to the surface and let it rest 
there. If it makes an indentation the cement passes the test. 
If it does not make an indentation, then the cement is too 
quick setting. If the cement passes the initial set test satis¬ 
factorily, try it at the end of the proper time for the final set 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


37 


with the small wire loaded with the one-pound weight. The 
pat should not be indented. 

The test pats should be stored in moist air during the period 
of the test. This is readily done by putting them on a screen 
over a pan of water and covering them with a damp cloth, held 
above them so it will not touch. The cloth should be damp, 
and not wet. It should be kept damp. 

Soundness. —Pats should be stored in the moist air for at 
least twenty-four hours. Then put one in clean water and keep 
it there for twenty-eight days. Put another in a shady place 
in ordinary air for the same length of time and observe them at 
intervals. 

Put a third pat in a vessel full of water, entirely immersed. 
Put a fourth in the vessel above the water so it can be enveloped 
in steam. Place the vessel on a stove and bring to a boil. Let 
the water boil five hours, and then remove the vessel and let 
the pats remain in it until the water again cools to about 70 
degrees F. 

To pass these tests satisfactorily the pats should remain 
firm and hard and show no signs of cracking, distortion or dis¬ 
integration. 

The steaming test is not too severe, but the boiling test is 
very severe. When several cements are tested and all seem 
good, the one that passes the boiling test best is the better 
cement. The boiling and steaming tests, however, should only 
be used when the purchaser wants results in less than twenty- 
eight days’ time. If he can wait twenty-eight days, the fresh 
water pat will be his best guide for soundness. 

The steaming test may cause the rejection of a good Portland 
cement which has not been sufficiently seasoned. 

A pat having attained its permanent set can be broken be¬ 
tween the fingers, and if it shows a clean fracture we have an 
indication that the cement may be good. A ball that has 
passed the time for permanent set may be dropped from a height 
of about five feet to the floor, and if it is not broken or cracked 
the cement may be considered as good. 

Adulterations and Purity. —A puzzolan cement made from 
furnace slag has a very light lilac color. It has no gritty feeling, 
such as Portland generally has. A pat immersed in water a 
long time and then broken has an intense bluish-green color 
in the fresh fracture, which color fades when exposed to dry air. 
The color of Portland cement is a bluish gray, and the color 


38 


TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 


of natural cement may be lighter or darker according to the 
color of the rock from which made. Color, however, is not 
always a good indication. 

Take about half a teaspoonful of cement and a little more 
than that amount of water, and make a paste in the bottom 
of a bowl or cup. Cover with clear muriatic acid poured on 
slowly, at the same time stirring with a glass rod. 

Pure Portland cement will effervesce slightly and give off a 
pungent gas Gradually a bright yellow jelly will form without 
sediment. 

An excess of lime will cause a violent effervescence, the acid 
boiling and giving off strong fumes until all the carbonate of 
lime has been consumed, when the bright yellow jelly will form. 

A sand or silica cement will act like Portland cement, but the 
adulterants will remain at the bottom as a sediment. 

If there is any coloring matter present the jelly will not be a 
clear bright yellow. It is not a defect, but if any coloring is 
used it is an indication that there is something not altogether 
right and the manufacturer has tried to conceal it. 

Cements which show too much lime or have a deposit indi¬ 
cating too much silica, or any discoloration showing coloring 
matter has been used, should be rejected. 

If adulterated with powdered slag, the test pats will show 
brown, green and yellow spots and marks when dry. 

The writer feels that he should acknowledge here that the 
acid tests have been taken from ' Hudson’s City Roads and Pave¬ 
ments.” The other information follows closely the reports of 
the United States Engineers, the American Society of Civil 
Engineers, and the American Society for Testing Materials. 
We have much to learn yet about cement, but no maker will 
object to the tests described if he makes good cement, and any 
firm objecting should be regarded with reasonable suspicion. 
No good cements will be rejected because of these simple tests, 
and any intelligent man can make them. 

It will be noticed that no mention has been made of the 
tensile test, without which no series of tests can be said to be 
complete. The tensile test is the test of the expert manipulator, 
and cannot be attempted by any man until he has served a long 
apprenticeship at cement testing. 


ANALYSIS OF CEMENTS, 


39 


ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT. 


Brand of 
Cement. 

1 Clay 

Iron 

Oxi’e 

net-la., 

Sut- 

phu’c 

Acid. 

Analysis Made by 

Alpha,. 

63.93 20.68 10.60 

2.86 

2.96 


Manufacturer. 

Atlas,. 

62.22 21.48 10.44 

1.03 

Department of Public W ks, 
Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Alpena. . 

63.35 20 52 10.50 

1.93 

1.24 

Manufacturers guarantee. 

Buckeye.. 

63.50 22.25 9.75 

1.75 

.75 

Manufacture. 

Colton.. 

63.05 23.00 11.50 

t 

•H 

, 143 

Adolph New, chemist, Col¬ 
ton. Cal. 

Cats kilL. 

63.21 23 44 10.34 

1.15 

1.25 

Manufacture. 

Diamond. 

G3.40t2O.6O 12.18 

I 

1.44 

.79 

f 1 

Superintendent of Construc¬ 
tion, i . S. P. O., Clevel'd. 

Golden Gate. . 

60.00-23.10 12.12 
62.98 21.60 I 2 .O 7 ! 

1.15 


Adolph New, chemist. Cot¬ 
ton. Cal. 

Hudson.. 

1.27 

1.33 Manufacture-. 

Irquoss.. 

• _ _ _ " . 

1.21 

1.70 

Manufacture’s guarantee. 

IdeaL. 

; . . 8 . 4 : 

1 

63.50 21.50 10.50 

.72 

1.90 

; 

Adolph New, chemist, Col¬ 
ton. CaL 

Iron clad.__ 

1.80 

1.50 

Manufacturer. 


Lehigh. 62.96 22.42 9.IS 2.76 1.05, 


Medusa.64 

Marquette.... 64 
Napa Junction 61. 


78 23 
26 21 
oo 22 


.30 9.44 
SO 10.SI 
.50 11.50, 


.971 

1.76' 

1.081 


Old Dominion. 63.47 20.65 9.6© 2.76 


Peninsula..... 64 

Saylor?.64. 

T. A Edison. . 62. 


10 22 
51 19 
71 20 


. 0010 . 501 
.67 12.34 
: - ' ■ 


1.16 

2.34, 




Universal._ 61.92 23.62 11.92 1.78 


1.21 

.96 

2 . 00 - 

1.34* 

1.60 

i.64 

1.32 


Average. .63.10 21.98 10.65 1.61 s 1.37 
_ 


delphia, Pa. 

Manufacturer. 
Manufacturer's guarantee. 
Ati«4ph New, chemist. Cot¬ 
ton. Cal. 

Booth. Garret & Blair, PhiLa= 
delphia. Pa. 
Manufacturer. 
Manufacturer. 

Lathbury A Spaekman. 

Philadelphi3. Pa. 

Robt. Hunt & Co., Chicago. 


CHARACTERISTIC ANALYSIS OF SLAG OR PUZZOLAN CEMENT. 

Per cent. 


Lime. 50.22 

Silica.24.60 

Alumina.... 13.46 

Iron oxide.. 1.15 

. Magnesia. 2.15 

Sulphuric acid. 1.35 

Loss on ignition. 7.07 


100.00 

























40 


STRENGTH OF CEMENTS, 


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STRENGTH OF CEMENTS. 


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AVERAGE TENSILE STRENGTH IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH OF VARIOUS BRANDS OF PORTLAND 

CEMENT—( Continued). 


42 


STRENGTH OF CEMENTS. 


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STRENGTH OF. CEMENTS. 


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PART II. 




CONCRETE, AGGREGATES AND SAND, MIX¬ 
ING CONCRETE, STRENGTH OF CON¬ 
CRETE, SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE, 
COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE, NOTES ON 
CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


Concrete. — Concrete is a mixture composed of broken 
stone, gravel, or similar material held together by cement 
mortar. The theory of concrete is that enough cement mortar 
should be used to fill all the voids between the stones. 

On large engineering works, the proportions of cement, 
sand, and broken stone or gravel should be accurately determined 
and specified. For general purposes it is possible to state 
approximate proportions, as the sand, broken stone, and gravel 
vary in size and proportions of voids according to their source 
and preparation. 

The proportion of sand and stone must also be adapted to 
the character of the work in which the concrete is to be used 
and the strength required. 

Concrete Construction. —Concrete was the most important 
of all the building materials used by the Romans, and the 
.developments of the past few years have brought about changes 
until it is now recognized as one of the most important mate¬ 
rials used at the present time. 

A test as to the durability of concrete is found in the Pantheon 
at Rome, which was built by Agrippa, 27 b.c., nearly 2000 
years ago. The circular walls are about 20 feet in thickness, 
and the roof is a hemispherical cement concrete dome with 
a 30-foot opening in the top and spanning in the clear 142 feet 
6 inches. This is the most remarkable instance in the world’s 

44 






wa - 

\ 

AGGREGATES AND SAND. 45 

history, showing the great strength and durability in cement- 
concrete construction. 

Concrete construction is usually done by building wood 
forms or moulds and ramming them full of concrete, either 
solid or with hollow walls. 

It is advisable to wet the concrete several times a day for 
several days after it has been put in place, to prevent it drying 
too fast. In building forms for foundations, walls, etc., care 
must be taken to provide chases and openings for all pipes, etc., 
and where any wood is to be fastened to the concrete, to build 
in bolts with the nut end sticking out from the face of the 
wall a sufficient distance to bolt up the woodwork. 

Concrete is one of the best and most reliable of building 
materials when mixed and put in place in a proper manner; 
where there have been failures in concrete construction it has 
generally been due to one of the following causes: Bad cen¬ 
tering and forms, bad material, poor mixing, insufficient ram¬ 
ming or insufficient and poor reinforcement. 

Aggregate. —The aggregate for concrete is usually broken 
stone, gravel, or cinders, or two or all of them combined. Along 
the seashore and rivers gravel is often used because it can be 
obtained much cheaper than the broken stone, and makes very 
good concrete, but on account of the smooth surface of the 
stones does not make quite as strong a concrete as broken 
stone, which, with its rough angular surfaces and corners, causes 
the mortar to take a better hold. 

Broken-stone Aggregate. —The best stone for concrete 
consists of angular pieces, varying in size from \ to 2 inches. 
An aggregate made up of stones of various sizes does not re¬ 
quire as much sand and cement, the voids not being so large 
as if the stone were all of the larger size. The stone should 
be clean and have a rough surface. 

When broken stone is used it should be cleaned from dust 
and dirt, by passing it over a f-inch mesh sieve. This is usually 
done at the crusher. The best results are obtained from strong, 
hard, durable rocks, which fracture into sharp angular fragments, 
such as granite, trap-rock, or limestone. Soft, porous, friable 
rocks, or rocks of a slaty fracture, should be avoided. Dust 
in crushed stone weakens the concrete. Aggregate for rein¬ 
forced concrete should not be over f inch in diameter. 

The voids in broken stone run from about 38% to 55%, 
depending on the size and amount of small stone contained. 






46 


AGGREGATES AND SAND. 


to V 
i" to r 


Broken stone from 1" to 2" contains about 50% voids 

“ “ 53% “ 

“ “ 52% “ 

“ “ 0" to 2" “ “ 45% “ 

“ “ 0" to 1" “ “ 43% “ 

VOIDS IN LOOSE BROKEN STONE. 


Authority. 

Per Cent 
Voids. 

Remarks. 

Sabin .. 

49.0 

Limestone, crusher run after screening out 
i in. and under. 

4i ,. 

44.0 

Limestone (1 part screenings mixed with 
6 parts broken stone). ' 

Wm. M. Black. 

46.5 

Screened and washed, 2 ins. and under. 

J. J. R. Croes. 

47.5 

Gneiss, after screening out i in. and under. 

S. B. Newberry. 

47.0 

Chiefly about egg size. 

H. P. Boardman . . . . 

39 to 42 

Chicago limestone, crusher run. 

screened into sizes. 

4 4 

48 to 52 

Wm. H. Hall. ... ... 

48.0 

Green River limestone, 2\ ins. and smaller, 
dust screened out. 


50.0 

Hudson River trap, 2J ins. and smaller, 
dust screened out. 

Wm. B. Fuller. 

47.6 

New Jersey trap, crusher run, J to 2.1 ins. 

Geo. A. Kimball .... 

49.5 

Roxbury conglomerate, \ to 2J ins. 

Myron S. Falk. 

48.0 

Limestone, ^ to 3 ins. 

W. H Henby. 

43.0 

2-in. size. 

46.0 

lj-in. size. 

Feret. 

53.4 

Stone, 1.6 to 2.4 ins. 

4 4 

51.7 

“ 0.8 to 1.6 in. 

* 4 

52.1 

‘ ‘ 0.4 to 0.8 in. 

A. W. Dow. 

45.3 

Bluestone, 89% being 1£ to 2^ ins. 

90% being | to \\ in. 

4 4 

45.3 

Taylor and Thompson 

54.5 

Trap, hard, 1 to 2J ins. 

“ “ J to 1 in. 

54.5 

“ “ “ 

45.0 

“ 0 to 2b ins. 

4 4 4 4 4 4 

51.2 

* ‘ soft, f to 2 ins. 

G. W. Chandler. 

40.0 

Canton, Ill. 

Emile Low. 

39.0 

Buffalo limestone, crusher run, dust in. 

C. M. Saville. 

46.0 

Crushed cobblestone, screened into sizes. 

T. Appleton. 

43.7 

i to 2 ins. 

-:- 


Broken stone being angular does not compact so readily as 
gravel, and shows a higher percentage of voids when the frag¬ 
ments are uniform in size and shoveled loosely into a box; 
but the voids, even then, seldom exceed 52%. 

The following records of actual tests will indicate the range 
of void percentages: 

Prof. S. B. Newberry gives the voids in Sandusky Bay gravel, 
\ to | in. size, as being 42.4% voids; l to 1-20 in. size, 35.9% 
voids. 

Mr. William H. Hall gives the following tests on mixtures 
of Green River, Ky., blue limestone and Ohio River washed 





























AGGREGATES AND SAND. 


47 


Stone. 


Gravel. 

Voids in Mixture. 

100% 

with 

0% 

48% 

80 

i ( 

20 

44 

70 

i ( 

30 

41 

60 

it 

40 

384 

50 

C C 

50 

36 

0 

(C 

100 

35 

The stone passed a 24-in. 

screen and the dust was removed 

by a fine screen. The gravel passed a 14 -in. 

screen. 

The voids in mixtures of Hudson River trap-rock and clean 

gravel, of the 

sizes just given for the Kentucky materials, were 

as follows: 




Trap. 


Gravel. 

Voids in Mixture. 

100% 

with 

.0% 

50% 

60 

i C 

40 

38i 

50 

i ( 

50 

36 

0 

ll 

100 

35 


0 

Mr. H. von Schon gives tests on a gravel having 34.1% voids 
as follows: 


Retained on 1-in. ring. 10.70% 


C C 

|-in. ring. 


. 23.65 

i i 

No. 4 sieve. 


. 8.70 

l 6 

No. 10 sieve. 


. 17.14 

i i 

No. 20 sieve. 


. 21.76 

a 

No. 30 sieve. 


... 6.49 

a 

No. 40 sieve. 


5.96 

Passed No. 40 sieve. 


. 5.59 


-in. ring. 


. 100.00 


Gravel Aggregate.— Gravel makes a very good aggregate 
for concrete work. It should be of various sizes ranging from 
\ to 2 inches; should not contain much clay, and no vegetable 
or earthy matter, and if very dirty it should be washed before 
using. 

For cellar floors gravel is often preferred to broken stone for 
an aggregate, as the gravel being a survival of the hardest 
stones, it is more nearly waterproof than some crushed stone. 

Gravel from to 2" contains about 35% voids. 











48 


AGGREGATES AND SAND. 


Cinder aggregate is usually used for concrete fireproof floor 
work. It is used on account of its being lighter than other 
aggregates. 

A cinder aggregate should really contain very little cinder, 
but should be nearly all clinkers which will pass through a 
1-inch mesh sieve, and if very dirty, they should in addition be 
passed over a f-inch mesh sieve. They should not contain 
more than 5 per cent of ash or unburned coal. Specifications 
usually call for rolling-mill slag or good, clean, crushed vitrified 
clinkers, and such materials should always be used, as the 
ordinary cinders are not fit for fireproof work. The large 
clinkers can be broken, as described on page 147. 

Crushed Slag Aggregate. —Crushed furnace slag is often 
used as an aggregate for fireproofing and makes good concrete. 
It is lighter than stone and strictly fireproof. 

The voids in slag are about the same as in broken stone. 

Sand for Concrete. —Sand should be clean, coarse, and 
sharp. A quartz sand gives the best results. Loamy sand 
or that containing much clay should not be used; it will give 
poor results and retard the set. Organic matter and dirt are 
objectionable in any sand. A very fine sand or gravel is not 
good, as it weakens the work. A. very coarse sand gives the 
greatest strength in concrete, but when the proportions of sand 
exceed 2 parts to 1 of cement, a sand of mixed grains, fine to 
coarse, with the coarse predominating, is preferable, as the fine 
sand helps to fill the voids in the coarse sand and makes a 
more dense and less absorbent mortar. 

The voids in sand are about as follows: 


Bank sand. 30% 

River sand, fine. 30 

“ “ coarse .. 40 

“ “ fine to coarse. 32 

Lake or ocean sand, coarse. 40 


Proportioning Materials for Concrete. —A simple way 
of determining the proper proportions for concrete is as follows: 

Take a water-tight barrel and bore a hole in the bottom. 
In this fit a long wooden plug. Fill the barrel with the crushed 
stone and then pour in water until it over flows; draw the 
water off in buckets and measure. The quantity of water 
represents the voids between the stone to be filled with mortar. 







MIXING CONCRETE. 


49 


Now empty out the stone from the barrel; pour back the water 
and mark the level on the side; then draw the water off; fill 
with sand to the mark, and this will determine the amount of 
Sand to be used. Lastly, pour in enough water to come up to 
the level of the sand, and the amount used indicates how much 
cement is needed to fill the voids in the sand. To the above 
proportion of sand and cement add respectively ten per cent 
and the correct amounts of cement, sand, and broken stone 
will have been found. 

Wet and Dry Concrete. —There is quite a difference of 
opinion among engineers and architects as to just what amount 
of water should be used in mixing concrete to get the best 
results. Some claim that it should be mixed with as little 
water as possible, others think that a very plastic or wet con¬ 
crete is best. It is the opinion of the author that either, accord¬ 
ing; to the conditions under which it is to be used is better than 
the other. For instance, in a large foundation or any place 
where the concrete can be spread in thin layers and where no 
trouble will be experienced in ramming, a mixture that, when 
rammed enough to make it a solid and compact mass with no 
voids, and which at. the end of this ramming shows just a little 
water at the top, will make as good a concrete as it is possible 
to obtain. On the other hand, in narrow walls or founda¬ 
tions, between beam grillage, and all places where any diffi¬ 
culty will be had in ramming, then a wet concrete will work 
the best. 

The author has used concrete in such places, mixed so it 
would just carry the man ramming, and which when he walked 
or tamped on it, caused it to “quake,” and which gave ex¬ 
cellent results, and contained no cavities. Where a concrete 
is to be made water-tight a mixture of this kind will give the 
best results. Very often workmen will go to the extreme and 
use too much water, making the concrete too wet. It should 
just show up mushy when tamped or worked into place and 
stiff enough so the aggregate will be held in place. If too wet 
the aggregate will settle to the bottom before the cement sets, 
thus making a strata of poor concrete at the bottom of each 
layer deposited. 

Tests have been made which show while the dry concrete 
■becomes much stronger in a short period of time, the wet mix¬ 
ture if allowed to harden for a long period will ultimately become 
stronger than the dry mixture. 


50 


MIXING CONCRETE. 


Where a wet concrete is to be used the forms or moulds should j 
be nearly water-tight. 

Measuring Materials for Concrete. —The ordinary unit 
of measurement used by workmen for measuring the materials j 
for concrete is the wheelbarrow. This method, if care is ex¬ 
ercised, is exact enough for all work, but the workmen are 
liable to become careless and not fill all barrows equally. 

The first step is to ascertain just how much or how many 
sacks of cement a barrow will hold; then it can be readily 
figured how many barrow loads of each material is required j 
for a batch of concrete. 

A more exact method is to use a barrel with both heads j 
out, setting the barrel up on the mixing platform or pile and j 
filling it with the material, then lifting the barrel, allowing the ,j 
material to run out on the platform or pile. Set the barrel 
up and fill it again until each material has been measured. 
First measure the aggregate, level the pile off and on top measure 
the sand and on top of this put the cement. 

A method the author uses is bottomless boxes, set one on 
top of the other, and which will be described on a following 
page. 

Mixing Concrete. —This is another point in concrete work 
where engineers and architects differ in opinion, some even 
preferring hand-mixing to that done with a machine. There 
are a number of ways or methods employed for mixing con¬ 
crete by hand, and they will nearly all give good results pro¬ 
viding enough labor is expended. 

A good rule for mixing concrete by hand is to mix it enough 
and once more for luck. 

A method which the author has used for hand-mixing and 
which gave excellent results as to cost of labor and result of 
mixing is described as follows: 

Make a tight platform about 30 feet long and 14 feet wide. 
On one end of this platform mix the sand and cement dry in 
the following manner: Have a bottomless box of sufficient size 
and depth to measure the exact proportion of sand, place it 
on the platform as shown at A, Fig. 1, and fill it with sand, 
using a straight-edge to strike it level full. On top of this 
set another bottomless box of the correct depth to measure 
the correct proportion of cement and fill it in like manner; 
now lift the two boxes and thoroughly mix the sand and cement 
until it is of a uniform color. 



MIXING CONCRETE. 


51 


While the cement and sand are being mixed by part of the 
“gang,” let the rest prepare the aggregate. Place a bottomless 
box on the platform close to the pile of cement and sand as 
shown by B, Fig. 1, the box to be of a depth to measure the 




Fig. 2. 


aggregate; fill it level full and set on top another box to measure 
the combined cement and sand; fill the latter level full, as shown 
by Fig. 2; now remove the boxes and the mass is left in a flat 
pile with the cement and sand spread uniformly over the aggre¬ 
gate. Now let two men, as 1, 1, Fig. 1, start turning the 
pile toward the vacant end of the platform, and as they turn keep 
the new pile about the same width and depth as the one made 
by the boxes. 

After they have started turning start two more men as shown 
at 2, 2, giving the second turning; but as it is turned and spread 
in the pile have a man with the hose and sprinkler (or a good 
plan is to tie the nozzle of the hose on a shovel-blade so the 
blade will spray the water) and wet the mass as it is spread in 
the pile.' Then give it two more turnings by men at 3, 3 and 
4, 4, and when it reaches the pile C, as shown in Fig. 1, it is 
thoroughly mixed. With a little experience the man with the 
water will be able to regulate it so that each batch will have 
about the same amount of water. 

i The author has also used three boxes as described, on top of 
each other, one for the aggregate, one for the sand, and one for 
the cement; then turning and mixing the mass as described, 
it gave a very uniform mixture. In mixing by hand the men 
■should be provided with long-handled, square-bladed shovels, 
as they can reach the centre of the pile better and will not tire 
themselves as with a short-handled shovel. . In large work the 
concrete can be mixed very rapidly as described; as one batch 
is being finished another one can be got ready, and thus a 
continuous stream of concrete can be turned out. The author 
























52 


MIXING CONCRETE. 


has seen concrete mixed in this way in competition with a 
machine where the amount mixed by hand in a day was 
equal to that done by the machine with the same amount of 
labor. 

On small work, where it would not pay to go to the trouble 
as described above, a good method is to mix the sand and 
cemqit dry, then add the water, making a w r et mortar, 
spread this out and add the aggregate which has already been 1 
wet and washed; now turn and mix until a uniform mass is 
obtained. 

For the mixing of concrete by hand at the U. S. Post-Office, 
Court House, and Custom-House at Wheeling, W. Va., the fol¬ 
lowing was specified: “The cement and sand will first be thor¬ 
oughly mixed dry and enough water added by fine sprinkling to 
form a stiff plastic paste, and, after the gravel has been thor¬ 
oughly drenched with water, it will be added to the mortar and 
the whole mixed to a proper uniform consistency. The propor¬ 
tions are intended to secure a concrete in which every particle 
of sand is enveloped by cement and all voids in the gravel 
filled with mortar, but this result must be obtained to the 
satisfaction of the superintendent. The mixing will be done 
on a water-ti 0 ht platform with raised edge's, the cement 
spread first, and no batch shall contain more than one barrel 
of cement.” 

Proportions and Strength. —The proportion of the mortar 
to the aggregate should be such that it will a little more than 
fill all the voids of the aggregate, the strength of the con¬ 
crete depending a great deal on the proportion of sand to the 
cement. 

For all ordinary purposes, such as heavy foundations, machin¬ 
ery foundations, reservoirs, cisterns, retaining-walls, sub-sur¬ 
faces of sidewalks, cellars, and street-paving, 1 part of cement, 

2 or 3 parts of sand, with 5 parts of broken stone, will give the 
best results; for footings and sub work 1 part of cement, 3 parts 
of sand, and 7 parts of broken stone will give excellent results. 

Care should be taken to see that the proportious are such 
that the mortar will fill all the voids in the aggregate, and 
the mass will tamp solid. The proportion of cement and sand 
to the aggregate depends a great deal on the nature of the 
aggregate; if it is of coarse stone with large voids then it will 
require more mortar to fill them than if the aggregate was of a 




MIXING CONCRETE. 


53 


finer stone or gravel. To determine the voids in any aggregate, 
take a box containing a cubic foot and fill it with the aggregate, 
which should already be soaked with water, then pour water 
in the box until it is full; now pour off the water and measure 
it, which will show the voids contained in a cubic foot of the 
aggregate. 

A good method of determining the voids in concrete materials 
is to fill a box of exactly 1 cubic foot capacity, or a convenient 
fraction thereof, with the substance and weigh the contents. 
A solid block of quartz or limestone, measuring exactly 1 cubic 
foot, would weigh 165 pounds; a cubic foot of sand, gravel, or 
broken stone considerably less than the latter amount, and the 
difference will represent the voids. For example, if 1 cubic foot 
of gravel weighs 95 pounds, the difference is 165 — 95 = 70. The 
percentage of voids in then 70X100 -+-165 = 42.4. 

The following table shows the percentage of voids found 
in some common concrete materials: 

Sand, not screened.32.3 per cent voids 

Gravel, l- to £-inch. • V, . 42.4 “ 

Broken stone, 1- to 2-inch. ...47.0 ‘ 1 lt 

Mixed materials, which contain the greatest variety of sizes 
from fine to very coarse, will be found to have the least voids. 
With any two materials, one fine and one coarse, there is one 
mixture, and only one, which will give the greatest possible 
density. This may be determined by calculation; for example, 
taking the gravel given above, since it contains 42.4 per cent 
voids, we must fill these by adding sand to the amount of 42.4 
per cent of its volume. For this we require 42.4 measures of 
sand to 100 measures of gravel, or 1 to 2J. For the stone, 47 
measures to 100 will be required, or 1 to 2.13. With mixed 
materials, such as are generally met with in practice, in which 
no sharp division between sand and gravel can be made, practical 
test will be found more satisfactory than calculation. The sand 
and gravel or stone should be mixed in the calculated propor¬ 
tion, and also in other proportions, and the weight per cubic 
foot of each mixture taken, until that giving greatest density is 
found. With favorable materials it will be found possible to 
make a mixture weighing 140 pounds per cubic foot, correspond¬ 
ing to 15 per cent voids. If the greatest weight obtainable 
is less than this, the materials are not the best. 




54 


STRENGTH OF CONCRETES. 


The proportion of cement to be used depends upon the per 
cent of voids in the mixture of sand and gravel or stone, and 
also upon the purpose for which the concrete is required. In 
general it may be said that an amount of cement sufficient to 
fill the voids in the mixture will give a first-class concrete. 
With mixed materials weighing 140 pounds per foot and con¬ 
taining 15 per cent voids, cement to the amount of 15 per cent, 
by measure, or 1 to 6|, will theoretically be required. Greater 
compression strength may be obtained by increasing the pro¬ 
portion of cement, and for the foundations of engines or other 
heavy machinery as high a proportion as 1 to 5 may well be 
used. On the other hand, for foundations of buildings, filling 
of abutments, and other purposes requiring less strength, mix¬ 
tures of 1 to 10 or 1 to 12 will be found fully satisfactory. 

It should be remembered that the strength of the concrete 
will depend on its density. A mixture of cement and sand, 
1 to 3, will usually be found weaker than a 1 to 7 mixture, 
rightly proportioned, of cement, sand, and gravel or stone. 
Mixtures of cement and sand are greatly strengthened by the 
addition of a suitable amount of coarse material, though the 
proportion of cement is thus decreased. It is, therefore, well 
worth while to give careful study to the concrete materials 
which it is proposed to use. 

The following table, showing the result of tests of cement 
mortar of different proportions and age, was made at the United 
States Arsenal, Watertown, Mass. The cement used was 
Peninsula Portland cement. 




COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF PORTLAND-CEMENT MORTAR 


IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. 



Age in 


Neat. 

1 Cement. 

1 Cement,! 

1 Cement. 

1 Cement, 

Air. | 

Water. 

Air. 

1 Sand. 

2 Sand. . 

3 Sand. 

4 Sand. 

7 

1 

6 


4970 

6260 

2850 

2880 

1370 

1440 


473 

557 

30 

1 

29 


6140 

8870 

3400 

4680 

1490 

2750 


656 

950 

92 

1 

91 

!. 

6080 

9560 

3410 




1 

91 

2 


7570 




1 

90 

2 



4990 



93 

100 

101 

1 

96 

4 



2635 

isio 

3140 

i030 

1 

95 

4 



.... 


i970 

1 

70 




.... 

2570 












































STRENGTH OF CONCRETES. 


55 


Taylor and Thompson in “Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, ” 
give the safe strength of concrete as follows: 

j SAFE STRENGTH OF PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE IN DIRECT 
- COMPRESSION. 


Proportions. 

•2-4 . 

Pounds per 
Square Inch. 
.410 

Tons per 
Square Foot. 
29 

- oit ■ 5 . 

. 360 

25 

: 3: 6. 

.325 

23 


. 260 

18 


With a large mass foundation take values one-eighth greater. 
With a vibrating or pounding load, take one-half these values 


WORKING STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AS ALLOWED BY THE 
BUILDING CODES OF VARIOUS CITIES. 


_ j Working Strength (Compression) per 

Proportions of Mixture. Square Inch of Section. 


Port¬ 

land 

Cement 

; Rosen- 
dale or 
Equal 
Cement.; 

| j 

Sand. 

Broken 

Stone. 

New 
; York, 

1 1902. 

~ . Phila- 

i delphia, 

i90o. 1902. | 

Cleve- j 
land, 
1904. ; 

Nat. 
Board 
of Fire 
Under¬ 
writers, 
j 1905. 

1 


2 

4 

230 

173 208 

222 

230 

1 


2 

5 

208 

173 208 

194* 

208 


1 

2 

4 

125 


111 

125 


1 

2 

5 

111 

. 1 . 

S3! 

111 


RESULTS OF TESTS MADE TO DETERMINE THE 
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE WHEN CEMENT IS 
MIXED WITH SAND, CLAY, AND LOAM IN VARY¬ 
ING PROPORTIONS* 

The cement was “Double Anchor,” German brand, the sand 
standard quality; the clay was taken from the cutter of a 
dredge working in Galveston channel; the loam was heavy black 
soil from the mainland. Both loam and clay were thoroughly 
pulverized, free apparently from all vegetable matter and 
sand, and sifted to remove lumps. All briquettes were made 
from one sample on the same day, under same conditions. 

* Extract from report on Defenses of Galveston, Tex., by officer in 
charge Capt. Edgar Jadwin. Corps of Engineers, to Chief of Engineers. 
Primed in the Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1905. 



























56 


STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 


The clay acted so unsatisfactorily during the working of the 
25% batch that no more briquettes were made for this par¬ 
ticular test, but the loam was continued to 40%. 


Tensile Strength Test Completed Aug. 1, 1904. 


Old Shipment. 


7 Days. 


28 Days. 


Sand and cement, 3 to 1 
Sand with 5% loam . . . 
Sand with 10% loam . . 
Sand with 15% loam . , 


No. 1. 

No. 2. 

No. 3. 

No. 1. 

No. 2. 

No. 3. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

170 

166 

190 

240 

240 

260 

180 

168 

191 

245 

236 

265 

187 



250 



183 



245 



165 


241 



175 



250 



203 


275 

275 



210 








Tensile Strength Test Computed Feb. 5, 1904. for Six Months’ 
Breaks. 


New Shipment.—Breaks. 



7 Days. 
Lbs. 

28Days. 

Lbs. 

3 Mos. 
Lbs. | 

6 Mos. 
Lbs. 

Sand and cement, 3 to 1. 1 

5% clay . . .. \ 

5% loam.j 

10 % clay.| 

10 % loam.< 

15% clay. < 

15% loam.< 

20 % clay.- 

20 % loam. • 

25% clay..< 

25% 16am. 

30% loam... 

35% loam .. 

40% loam. 

L 

r 

F 

r 

r 

j 

1 

{ 

{ 

( 

210 

207 
220 
218 

208 
201 
210 
213 
200 

207 
200 

208 
202 
205 
184 
189 
220 
216 
172 
166 
221 
218 
220 
225 
205 
198 
198 ' 
189 

316 

337 

356 

343 

367 
359 
321 
330 

369 
365 
296 
301 
365 

368 
262 
267 

370 

372 
240 
251 

373 
375 
361 
350 
300 
306 
290 
279 

350 

329 

341 

336 

309 

321 

329 

336 

320 
329 
270 
260 

321 
328 
250 
258 
250' 
241 
230 
216 
239 
248 
256 
250 

239 
248 

240 
232 

339 
346 

340 
334 
316 
320 
327 
334 

330 

331 
225 
220 
319 
315 
200 
216 
230 
225 
175 
160 
222 
217 
210 
216 
220 
212 
198 
213 



















































STRENGTH OF CONCRETES, 


57 


The following tests on the crushing strength of concrete were 
made by Latlibury & Spackman, Philadelphia, Pa* 


REPORT ON CRUSHING STRENGTH OF SIX-INCH CUBES. 


Composition. 

Age. 

Average Crush¬ 
ing Strength, 
Three Cubes to 
Ea^h Test. 

1 part Lehigh Portland cement. 

2 parts sand... 

4 parts crushed stone. . .. 

7 days 
30 “ 

90 “ 

36,270 lbs. 
85,810 “ 
98,087 “ 

1 part Lehigh Portland cement. 

3 parts sand. 

7 days 

30 “ 

90 “ 

28,433 lbs. 
62,003 “ 
73,073 “ 

6 parts crushed stone. 

1 part Lehigh Portland cement. 

7 days 
30 •• 

90 “ 

22,687 lbs. 
48,790 “ 
81,230 ,B 

8 parts crushed stone. 


The following report of U. S. Engineer Corps gives the result 
of tests made with Atlas Portland cement in concrete of different 
proportions. 

OFFICIAL REPORT U. S. GOVERNMENT ENGINEERS ON ATLAS 
PORTLAND CEMENT. 

Report of Tests of Crushing Strength of One-foot Cube of Concrete. 
Made by Capt. Wm. M. Black, Corps Engineers, U.S.A., Washington, D.C. 

Dec. 1, 1897. 


No. 

Composition. 

Age. 

Crushing 

Strength. 

7 1 

1 part Atlas cement 

2 parts sand { 

6 parts broken stone 

10 days 

2 months 
6 

12 

137,500 lbs. 
255,000 “ 
320,000 “ 
440,000 “ 

f 

U 1 

1 part Atlas cement 

2 parts sand 

3 parts gravel 

3 parts broken stone 

10 days 

2 months 
6 

12 

95,000 lbs. 
232,500 “ 
280,000 “ 
405,000 “ 

r 

8 i 

1 part Atlas cement 

2 parts sand 

2 parts gravel 

4 parts broken stone 

10 days 

2 months 
6 

12 “ 

32,500 lbs. 
267 500 ‘ ‘ 

295 000 ‘ ’ 
390,000 “ 


The following are the requirements of the U. S. Navy for 

tensile tests of Portland cement. 

Tensile Strength. —The neat briquettes, prepared as speci¬ 
fied, shall stand a minimum tensile strain per square inch, with¬ 
out breaking, as follows: 









































5S 


STRENGTH OF CONCRETES. 


For 12 hours in air and 12 hours in water . 200 lbs. 

“ 1 day “ “ “ 6 days “ " .550 " 

tt J it cl tt tt cyj tt U ft ....... 650 U 


The mortar briquettes, prepared as specified, shall stand a 
minimum tensile strain per square inch, without breaking, as 
follows: 


After 12 hours in air and 12 hours in water... 150 lbs. 

« 1 day “ “ “ 6 days “ “ 200 “ 

tt ^ It U tt It cy~ It ft tt 250 t{ 


Crushing Strength of Natural-cement Concrete. — Re¬ 
port of crashing tests made by the U. S. Government at the 
Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass., of concrete blocks 
made with Akron Star Brand Natural Cement, the blocks being 
cubes, 12 inches each way, thus making each block one cubic 
foot of concrete. The strength given is the average of three 
blocks of etch kind. 


Cement, j 

| Sand. 

Gravel. ; 

, Broken 
i Stone. 

Thirty j 
Davs, i 
Lbs. 

! Seven 1 
Months, I 
Lbs. 

One 

Year, 

Lbs. 

1 part 

1 14 parts , 

. 0 parts 

4 parts 1 

215.835 

321.833 j 

432.333 

1 “ 

3' " 

0 " 

74 “ 

150,367 

290.167 

i 306.667 

1 “ 

2 

3 “ 

4 

iei.200 

319,867 

329.500 

1 “ 

2 “ 

7 “ 

0 “ 

110.267 

239.533 | 

1 264.700 

1 “ 

2i “ 

8 " 

0 •* 

109.467 ! 

1 225,733 
> 

232,733 


Protectiox of Steel by Coxcrete. — By tests made, it 
has been found that steel or iron when properly covered with 
cement mortar or concrete is perfectly protected from rust, 
but the mortar must have contact with and cover all surfaces 
of the steel. The concrete should be made wet enough so that 
it can be tamped close around the steel. With cinder concrete 
it should be thoroughly mixed and wet enough so that the 
cinders will not absorb all the water before the cement is tamped 
in place. 

The following conclusions were arrived at by Mr. C. L. Norton 
after making a number of tests as to the value of cement mortar 
and concrete to protect steel from rust: 

“(1) Neat Portland cement, even in thin layers, is an effective 
preventive of rusting. 




















STRENGTH OF CONCRETES. 


59 


“(2) Concretes to be effective in preventing rust must be 
dense and without voids or cracks. They shook! be mixed 
qorte wet when applied to the metaL 

“(3) The corroson found in cinder concrete k mainly doe 
to the iron oxide or rust in the cinders and not to the sulphur. 

“(1) Cinder concrete, if free from voids and well rammed 
when wet, is about as effective as stone concrete in protect¬ 
ing steel. 

“(5) It is of the utmost importance that the steel be dean 
when bedded in concrete. Scraping^ pickling, a sand-blast, 
and Erne should be used, if necessary, to have the metal clean 
when built into a wall.’ 7 

Fred, von Emperzer. C.E. describes rods embedded in con¬ 
crete under water for four hundred years coming out free from 
rest. W. G. F. Tries* dug a wrench out of a concrete bridge 
pillar, which was free from rast after being embedded for 
twenty-two years. E_ E Ransome partly embedded some 
hoop iron in concrete blocks and left them exposed to sea air fix’ 
many years. When the exposed iron had disappeared in net, 
the blocks were cut open and the iron was found to be free 
from rest. The safety of the Chicago buildings supported 
by steel grillages depends on the concrete protecting this steel 
from corrosion. The wire netting in Monier pipe, after thir¬ 
teen years’ service, has been found in the same condition as 
when embedded. Professor Bauschinger has found an adhe¬ 
sive action between steel and cement mortar greater than the 
tensile strength of the latter. 

During the construction of the Rapid Transit subway in 
New York City, a tide walk laid in 1S83 by Matt Taylor was 
torn up, and embedded in the concrete were found a number 
o£ steel rods which were in perfect condition after having been 
in the concrete for a period of nearly seventeen years. 

Dkpostttxg Cqxcsets. — Concrete should be deposited just 
as soon as mired: it should be spread in layers about S inches 
thick; and rammed .solid, and each succeeding layer pot on 
before the one below has set: in this way the concrete becomes 
one mass, and a solid block is the result. 

The concrete should never be dumped from any height, but 
should be deposited with a shovel- If it is dumped any dis¬ 
tance the stone aggregate will become separated from the 
laorrar. 

Where any concrete is to be put on top or against any that 



60 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE. 


is already set the surface of the concrete already in place-should 
be coated over with a thick cement grout, as this will insure the 
two masses adhering together. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE. 

As a guide for workers in concrete the following extracts 
from specifications, which are considered very good are given, 

The following regarding concrete was taken from the speci¬ 
fications prepared by the Reclamation Service of the United 
States Geological Survey. 

Concrete. —This includes all concrete in place, except pres¬ 
sure pipes. 

The cement will be furnished by the Secretary of the Interior. 
The concrete to be used on all of the structures on this canal 
will be composed of Portland cement, sand, and gravel, or 
broken stone, in the proportion of one barrel of cement, in the 
packed condition in which it is sold, to seven full barrels of the 
same size, of the aggregates when mixed together. To facili¬ 
tate the work experiments will be made by the contractor with 
the carriers, whether wheelbarrowsj boxes, or cars, used by him, 
so that this proportion of cement to aggregates may be main¬ 
tained as nearly as possible, and the engineer will supervise 
these experiments and fix said proportion for the kind of 
carrier used at each piece of work. He will also make experi¬ 
ments with the aggregates themselves so as to get the most 
compact mass that can be made from them, and for such experi¬ 
ments no extra allowance will be made to the contractor. If 
the cement comes in sacks, then 380 pounds net of cement will 
constitute a barrel, and any ordinary cement barrel open at 
one end containing not more than 3.7 cubic feet will be used 
for measuring the aggregates. If broken stone is used, it must 
be hard and compact, and satisfactory to the engineer. The 
entire product of the crusher will be taken, provided there is 
not more than ten (10) per cent of the volume composed of 
dust or screenings. All of the rock must be of such sizes as 
will pass through a screen with two (2) inch square mesh. If 
gravel is used it must be clean, hard, and heavy, having at least 
a specific gravity of 2, and screened into three different sizes. 
None of the gravel is to exceed 2 inches in diameter. The 
mixture of such sizes will be made in the proportion fixed by 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE. 


61 , 

the engineer. A promiscuous mixture of sand and gravel will 
not be accepted. The sand must be Clean and sharp and free 
from any clayey matter. 

The mixing of the concrete, if hand labor is used, will be 
done in the following manner: A tight floor of either planks 
or sheet iron will be used for the mixing in all cases. The sand 
must be dry, and will first be piled on the floor with the cement 
in the proper proportions; the mass will then be shovelled 
over as many times as are necessary to make a thorough mix¬ 
ture of sand and cement; sufficient water will then be added 
to make a stiff mortar and the mass shovelled over twice or 
more, as may be necessary. Thp stone or gravel, which should 
be w T ell w r et, will then be added, and the entire mass shovelled 
over twice or more before shovelling into the carriers. This 
mixing must be done to the satisfaction of the engineer. If the 
mixing is done by machine, the latter will be subject to approval 
by the engineer. If at any time the machine fails to per¬ 
form the mixing in a manner satisfactory to the engineer, it 
must be made satisfactory or removed, and another machine 
substituted, or mixing by hand resorted to. . . . 

In all concrete walls over 2 ft. thick hard boulders, or frag¬ 
ments of hard sound rock, not exceeding 1 ft., or less than 
6 ins., in any dimension, may be placed by hand in the soft 
concrete, provided no such stone comes nearer than 2 ins. 
to the exterior surface of the wall, or to any other boulder 
or stone so placed. . . . All concrete shall be well tamped, if 
put in dry, with heavy tamping-bars, until moisture appears 
on the surface; and, if wet, with suitable bars and shovels, 
so that porosity and rough surface may be avoided. Con¬ 
crete will be used “wet” wherever practicable, and “dry” 
only when the nature of the work renders its use unavoidable. 

Mortar. —The following, regarding proportions of mortar, is 
taken from Cooper’s “General Specifications for Foundations 
and Substructures”: 

“24. Cement mortar will be made by thoroughly incor¬ 
porating the cement and sand in the following proportions, 
viz., one barrel of 300 pounds of natural cement and 12 cubic 
feet of sand, or one barrel of 375 pounds of Portland cement 
and 16 cubic feet of sand, with sufficient water to obtain the 
proper consistency. 

“ 28. For foundations below the surface of the ground where 
the concrete will not be exposed to the action of running water 


.62 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE.' 


or to weather, the concrete shall be made of the following 
proportions: For each barrel of natural cement, 12 cubic feet 
of sand and 24 cubic feet of broken stone or coarse gravel. 

“ 29. For monolithic piers and abutments, for cylindrical 
and wooden box piers, and for foundations where there is a 
liability to the action of running water or where the bottom 
is soft or of unequal firmness, the concrete shall be made of 
the following proportions: One barrel of Portland cement, 
10 cubic feet of sand and 20 cubic feet of broken stone or coarse 
gravel.” 

Mortar, Grout, and Concrete. —The following specifica¬ 
tions were prepared for the concrete work of the retaining- 
walls of the Pennsylvania R. R. Terminal Station, New York 
City: 

In proportioning materials for mortar, grout, and concrete, 
1 volume of cement shall be taken to mean 3S0 lbs. net. One 
volume of sand or broken stone shall be taken to mean 3| cu. 
ft. packed or shaken down. Sand and broken stone shall be 
measured in barrels or rectangular boxes. Measurements in 
wheelbarrows will not be permitted. 

In preparing mortar, the specified amounts of cement and 
sand shall first be mixed dry to a uniform color. The water 
shall be added in such a manner as not to wash out any of the 
cement and the mixing proceeded with until the mortar is 
thoroughly mixed and of uniform consistency. The propor¬ 
tions of cement and sand will generally be 1 to 2\ by volume* 
but when the work is wet, the proportion of sand shall be reduced 
as required by the engineer. 

Grout will generally be in the proportion of 1 part of cement 
to 1 part of sand by volume. The materials shall be thor¬ 
oughly mixed dry, and water then added, while the mixing 
proceeds, until the grout is of the required consistency. The 
mixing shall be continued vigorously, preventing the separa¬ 
tion of sand, until the entire amount mixed is used. 

Concrete will be in the proportion of 1 volume of cement to 
3 volumes of sand and 6 volumes of stone, except in special 
cases where the engineer may require different proportions. 
For copings and bridge seats to a depth of 9 ins. and in narrow 
confined places, the smaller sized stone shall be used, and the 
proportions of sand and stone may be reduced to 2 volumes of 
the former and 3 volumes of the latter to 1 volume of cement. 
Whenever practicable the concrete shall be machine-mixed; 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE 


63 


the mixing-machine shall be a rotary mixer, and of a pattern 
that will mix the concrete in batches and permit the definite 
measurement of the materials for each batch. When the engi¬ 
neer considers it impracticable to mix by machine, it may be 
mixed by hand, in the same proportions as above specified. 
The mixing shall be done on a platform of boards or planks 
securely fastened together. The cement and sand shall first 
be mixed and made into mortar as described. The broken 
stone, previously wetted, shall then be added and the mortar 
and stone turned over with shovels until the mortar is uniformly 
distributed through the mass and every stone is coated with 
mortar. 

Where the walls of concrete masonry exceed 6 ft. in thick¬ 
ness, masses of stone may be built in; such stone shall be clean, 
hard, compact, and free from cracks or other unsoundness. 
They shall be set in at least 6-in. beds of concrete and have 
full bearings therein. They shall be set on their largest beds 
and shall be at least 6 ins. apart at every point and at least 12 
ins. from the face of the wall. No stone shall be more than 
2 ft. in thickness. The large stones shall not in the aggregate 
exceed 25 per cent of the total volume of the masonry contain¬ 
ing them. 

The degree of moisture for mortar, grout, and concrete shall 
be at all times as required by the engineer or his inspector; 
in general mortar shall be plastic, grout shall be fluid enough 
to be pumped, and concrete shall be of such consistency that it 
will quake when being deposited, but not wet enough to cause 
the stone to separate from the mixture. 

Concrete shall be deposited in the work in such a manner 
as not to cause separation of mortar and stone. It shall be 
laid quickly in layers not exceeding 9 ins. in thickness and 
thoroughly rammed with rammers of such form and material 
as the engineer may approve; special shaped rammers will be 
required for comers and other places where ordinary rammers 
would not be effective. Compact, dense concrete must be 
obtained with all the voids between the stones filled with 
mortar. If voids are discovered at any time, the defective 
concrete shall be removed and immediately replaced by con¬ 
crete of such mixture and in such manner as the engineer may 
direct. 

When the placing of the concrete is suspended, the engineer 
may require a joint to be formed in a manner satisfactory to 




64 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE. 


him, so that the fresh concrete, when added, may have a bond. 
Before depositing fresh concrete the entire surface on which 
it is to be laid shall be cleaned, washed, brushed, and slushed 
over with grout of cement without sand. 

The surface of freshly laid concrete shall be protected from 
injury in such a manner and for such time as the engineer may 
require; concrete injured in any manner shall be removed. 

Water used *in mortar, grout, and concrete shall be clean 
fresh water. 

No mortar, grout, or concrete which has commenced to set 
shall be used anywhere in the work. Retempering of mortar 
or grout which has commenced to set will not be permitted. 

Forms for concrete shall be substantial and must preserve 
their accurate shape until the concrete has set. Where the 
concrete will show in the finished work, the face of the form 
shall be built of matched and dressed planking finished truly, 
to the lines and surfaces shown on the plans. Adequate meas¬ 
ures shall be taken to prevent the adhesion of mortar to the 
forms. Forms which have become warped or distorted shall 
be replaced immediately. 

Faces which will show in the finished work shall be true 
to the form intended and shall be smooth and free from cavi¬ 
ties due to shortage of mortar. Exposed faces shall have a 
facing of mortar, 2 ins. thick, deposited simultaneously with 
the corresponding layers of concrete and separated from the 
concrete by a metal diaphragm of approved form. After the 
mortar and concrete have been deposited the diaphragm shall 
be removed and the materials well worked together by spading 
and tamping, so as to insure their bonding. Plastering the 
face after removing the forms will not be permitted. The 
facing mortar shall contain 1 volume of cement to 2J volumes 
of sand. Copings and bridge seats shall be finished with a 
layer of mortar 1 in. thick laid on the fresh concrete, thoroughly 
worked into its surface and finished smooth to true lines and 
surface by trowelling. They shall be kept damp and protected 
from the sun and rain for a period of at least 10 days. 

Forms shall not be removed until permission has been given 
by the engineer. 

Immediately after the forms are removed the exposed faces 
of the walls shall be washed over with a neat cement grout 
applied with a whitewash-brush. 

Rock surfaces shall be thoroughly washed and cleaned before 


COMPOSITION 01 CONCRETE. 


65 


concrete is deposited against them/ and no concrete shall be 
deposited in water. 

If leaks appear on the surface of the concrete at any time 
after removing the form, the contractor shall, at his own cost 
and expense, remove the concrete through which the water 
passes and replace it with sound concrete, and shall conduct 
the water to the base of the wall through channels or pipes 
in the concrete or take such other measures as the engineer 
may require. 

PROPORTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE TO THE LOOSE 
MATERIALS.* 


Composition of Mixture in 
Parts. 

Volume of 
Loose Mate¬ 
rials before 

Volume of 
Concrete 

Percentage 
of Rammed 

Cement. 

Sand. 

Broken 
Stone. 

Gravel. 

being Mixed, 
per Barrel of 
Cement at 
4.25 Cu. Ft. 

after being 
Rammed 
in Place. 

Concrete to 
Loose 
Materials. 

1 

2 

4 


Cubic Feet. 
29.75 

Cubic Feet. 
18.75 

63.02 

1 

3 

5 


38.25 

23.80 

62.22 

1 

3 

6 


42.50 

26.90 

63.29 

1 

4 

6 


46.75 

29.25 

62.56 

1 

2 

3 

3 

38.25 

24.55 

64.18 

1 

3 


7 

46.75 

36.50 

78.07 ' 


At Fairport and Lorain harbors, Ohio, in work done under 
the U. S. Engineers, the ratio of the finished concrete to the 
loose materials were found to be as follows: 

At Fairport harbor with concrete of 1 cement, 2 sand, 3 
gravel, 4 unscreened broken stone, the ratio in large block 
work was 69 per cent and in concrete in mass it was 64.6 per 
cent. 

At Lorain harbor with concrete of 1 cement, 2 sand, 3 gravel, 
4 screened broken stone, the ratio in block work was 66.9 per 
cent and in mass concrete was 65.5 per cent. 

Quantity of Materials 'per Cubic Yard of Concrete. —Fuller’s 
formula, which is used by a number of engineers for estimating 
the quantity of the various materials in concrete, is as follows: 

C = number of parts cement; 

S = number of parts sand; 

g = number of parts gravel or broken stone. 


* From Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, by Taylor and Thompson. 



















66 


COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE. 


Then 

~ — = P = number of barrels Portland cement required for 

C +0+0 

1 cu. yd. of concrete; 

3 8 

PxSx~- = number of yards of sand required for 1 cu. yd. of 

£ l 

concrete; 

3 8 

PXg X 07 = number of cubic yards of stone or gravel required 

£ i 

for 1 cu. yd. of concrete. 

MATERIALS FOR ONE CUBIC YARD OF CONCRETE.* 


Proportion. 

. Cement, 
Barrels. 

Sand. 

(Cu. Yds.) 

Gravel or 
Stone, 
Cu. Yd. 

1:2:4 

1.57 

0.44 

0.88 

1 : : 5 

1.29 

0.45 

0.91 

1:3 :6 

1.10 

0.46 

0.93 

1:4 :8 

0.85 

0.48 

0.96 


If broken stone, screened to uniform size, is used, 5 per cent 
must be added to all materials. If the coarse material con¬ 
tains a large variety of sizes 5 per cent may be deducted from 
all of the quantities. 

WEIGHT OF CONCRETE AGGREGATES. 

Gravel aggregate weighs about 80 pounds per cubic foot. 

Limestone “ “ “ 80 “ “ , “ “ 

Granite “ “ “ 90 “ “ “ “ 

Trap-rock “ “ “ 85 “ “ “ “ 

Wash for Concrete Surfaces. —Slack with warm water, 
half a bushel of lime, covering it to keep in the steam, and then 
strain the liquid through a fine sieve; add a peck of salt dis¬ 
solved in warm water, 3 lbs. of ground rice boiled to a thin 
paste and stirred in boiling water; b lb. of powdered Spanish 
whiting and a pound of glue which has previously been 
dissolved over a slow fire, and add 5 gallons of hot water 
to the mixture. Mix well and let stand for a few days. To 
use strain carefully and apply hot with a brush or spray. This 
wash has been used by the U. S. Government in Lighthouse 
work, and has proven very durable. 


*From Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, by Taylor and Thompson. 




COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE. 67 


THE COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE FOR VARIOUS USES. 


Nature of Work. 

Proportions. 


Cement 

Sand. 

Broken 

Stone. 

Lime. 


Sidewalks, base. 

1 

2 

5 


3-im foundation of 

Sidewalks, surface. .. 

Concrete, general use. 

1 

1 

1 

3 

7 

. 

broken stone, grav¬ 
el, or cinders from 
6 to 12 ins. deep. 

1-in. crushed granite 
or sand. 

Broken stone from £ 
to 2 ins. in diam- 





Portland cement,lime, 
mortar. 

1 

7 


1 

eter. 

Concrete bridge foun¬ 
dations and abut¬ 
ment walls. 

1 

3 

6 


Stone to pass ring 
1^ ins. in diameter. 
Stone to pass ring 
1^ ins. in diameter. 

Concrete haunches, 
arches, catch-basins 

1 

2 

5 


Plastering faces of 
concrete arch and 
catch-basins. 

1 

n 

n 

i 



Stable floors, base. . . 

1 

3 


3 ins. thick. 

Stable floors, surface. 

1 



2 ins. thick, hard- 
trowelled. Very 

fine sand, or pref¬ 
erably crushed 

granite. 

Repairing masonry.. . 
Stucco. 

1 

3 



1 

3 



£ to i in. thick. 

\ in. thick. 

} in. thick. 

Stone to pass 1-in. 
ring. 

Broken stone to 

Plastering brick wall, 
first coat contain¬ 
ing hair. 

1 




'Plastering brick wall, 
second coat applied 
before the first has 
set. 

1 

2 



Concrete tanks, cis¬ 
terns, etc. 

1 

2 

5 


Concrete pillars, posts, 
walls, etc. 

1 

2 

3 


Ornamental work. .. . 

1 

2 

3 


in. ring. 

Fine-crushed gran¬ 
ite. 

Cinder and cement 
concrete for fire¬ 
proof floors. 

1 

2* 

1 

6 parts 
steam 
cinders 


Cement grout for 
pouring between 
concrete blocks.... 

1 


Water should be 





added in sufficient 
quantity to pro¬ 
duce a fluid con¬ 
dition. 


Concrete Wash. —The facing of concrete work employed 
by the Wabash Ry. for bridge abutments of concrete and con¬ 
crete-steel consists in applying a facing wash composed of 
1 part of plaster of Paris to 3 parts of cement, made very tbiu 










































68 


COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE. 


and put on with whitewash-brushes. This has been found very 
satisfactory. 

Lime Concrete. —In Paris a concrete is much used, composed 
as follows: 

Sand and gravel 8 parts, burned and powdered earth 1 part, 
pulverized clinkers and cinders 1 part, and unslaked hydraulic 
lime LJ- parts. These materials are thoroughly mixed while dry 
and then dampened. This mixture sets in a short while and 
becomes very hard and strong in a few days. It is claimed for 
this concrete that it is not liable to crack or scale. 

Experiments for volume on cement, sand, gravel, broken 
stone, mortar, and concrete are shown in the following table, 
the volumes being measured loose: 


Cement. 

Volume 
of Loose 
Cement. 

Water 
Added by 
Measure. 

Volume of 
Stiff Cement 
Paste. 

Portland cement (Atlas). 

1 .00 

0.35 

0.78 

Natural cement. Louisville. 

1.00 

0.43 

0.78 


Remarks. —6.56 barrels of cement = 1 cubic yard measured loose. 


Aggregates. 

Volume 

Loose. 

Solids. 

Voids. 

1. Sand, moist, fine, will pass 18-mesh sieve. . 

1.00 

0.57 

0.43 

2. Sand, moist, coarse, will not pass 18-mesh 
sieve. 

1.00 

0.65 

0.35 

3. Sand, moist, coarse and fine mixed (ordi¬ 
nary). 

1.00 

0.62 

0.38 

4. Sand, dry, coarse and fine mixed. 

1.00 

0.70 

0.30 

5. Stone screenings and stone dust. 

1.00 

0.58 

0.42 

6. Gravel, f in. and under, 6 per cent coarse 
sand. 

1.00 

0.67 

0.33 

7. Broken stone, 1 in. and under. 

1.00 

0.54 

0.46 

8. Broken stone, 2£ ins. and under, dust only 
screened out. 

1.00 

0.59 

0.41 

9. Broken stone, 2b ins. and under, most small 
stones screened out. 

1.00 

0.55 

0.45 


MORTARS WITH NO. 3 SAND. 


Parts of sand mixed with 1 part of 
cement. 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

4.0 

5.0 

Volume of slush mortar. 

1.40 

1.78 

2.17 

2.55 

2.98 

3.39 

3.82 

4.65 

Required for 1 cubic yard: 









4.70 

3.70 

3.04 

2 58 

2.21 

1.01 

1.94 

1.03 

1.72 

1.05 

1.41 

1.08 

Sand, cubic yards. 

0.71 

0.84 

0.92 

0.98 

Volume of dry facing mortar 








(rammed). 

1.22 

1.57 

1.93 

2.28 

2.64 

2.99 

3.35 

4.08 

Required for 1 cubic yard: 

5.40 






Cement, bbls... 

4.18 

3.41 

2.88 

2.49 

2.20 

1.96 

1.61 

Sand, cubic yards. ... .. 

0.82 

0.95 

1.04 

1.10 

1.14 

1.17 

1.20 

1.23 












































COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE. 


69 


Materials Required to Make Different Classes of Con¬ 
crete for Connecticut Aye. Bridge, Washington, D. C. 

The following concrete preparations were determined by 
Mr. A. W. Dow, Inspector of Asphalts and Cements, and W. J. 
Douglas, Engineer of Bridges, D. C. 

Class A. 

4 bags = l bbl. Vulcanite cement =378.25 lbs. =4.5 cu. ft. 

9.00 cu. ft. sand. 

20.25 “ 11 stone. 

Yielded 21.4 cu. ft. concrete when rammed into place. 

Class B. 

1:2^: 6 (broken stone). 

4 bags = 1 bbl. Vulcanite cement =378.25 lbs. =4.5 cu. fto 

11.25 cu. ft. sand. 

27.00 “ “ stone. 

Yielded 27.66 cu. ft. concrete when rammed into place. 

Class B. 

1: 2^: 3:3 (3 gravel and 3 stone). 

4 bags = l bbl. Vulcanite cement =378.25 lbs. =4.5 cu. ft. 

11.25 cu. ft. sand. 

13.50 “ “ gravel. 

13.50 “ “ stone. 

Yielded 27.66 cu. ft. concrete when rammed into place. 

Class C. 

1:3:10 (gravel). 

4 bags = l bbl. Vulcanite cement =378.25 lbs. =4.5 cu. ft. 

13.5 cu. ft. sand. 

45.0 “ “ gravel. 

Yielded 45 cu. ft. of concrete when rammed into place. 

Notes on Cement Concrete, etc. —Good cement should 
be a uniform bluish-gray color throughout; yellow checks or 
places indicate an excess of clay or that the cement has not 
been sufficiently burned; and it is then probably a quick-setting 
cement of low specific gravity and deficient strength. 


70 


NOTES ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


Cement that will stand a high test for seven days may have 
an excess of lime, which will cause it to deteriorate. The 
twenty-eight-day test is, therefore, very useful. 

The most dangerous feature in Portland cement is the presence 
of too much magnesia and an excess of free lime, the latter 
indicated by the cracks and distortions in the test cakes and 
the former in the deficiency of tensile strength of the briquettes- 
Over 3 per cent of magnesia is excessive and dangerous. 

For general information the following building material will 
make 1 cubic yard of concrete: 2400 pounds crushed stone, 
295 pounds cement, 880 pounds sand, 700 pounds rough building 
stone. 

Cement work which is to be painted must be fully hardened 
and dry. The best results are obtained after the concrete is 
a year old. A good preparatory coating for oil paint is a solu¬ 
tion of water-glass (silicate of soda and potash dissolved in water) 
in 4 parts of water. After two applications the surface is washed 
with water and water-glass applied again. When thoroughly 
dry the paint can be used. 

The quality of cement-work is always improved by keeping it 
wet, especially during the process of setting. Cement should in 
no case be disturbed after it has attained its initial set. 

When metal moulds are used for forming concrete, or metal 
lining for wooden forms, ordinary pork fat has been successfully 
used to prevent adhesion. 

PER CENT OF STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT DIFFERENT 

AGES. 

30 days old, 60 per cent of full strength. 


60 

<< 

U 

75 

<< 

if «( 

{( 

ft 

90 

tt 

a 

85 

u 

it ll 

tt 

<< 

120 

t< 

a 

90 

« 

tf it 

tt 

fi 

180 

t* 

a 

95 

u 

it tt 

tt 

if 

360 

a 

a 

100 

if 

It (( 

<f 

ft 


NUMBER AND MESH OF SIEVES FOR TESTING CEMENT. 


No. 50. 2,500 meshes to the square inch 

No. 74. 5,476 “ “ “ “ “ 

No. 100. 10,000 “ “ “ “ “ 

No. 200. 40,000 “ “ “ “ 


The porosity of mortar and cement, according to recent 
tests made by Prof. Lang, shows that when wet Portland cement 






NOTES ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


71 


concrete is impermeable to air. By measuring the amount 
of air which passes a layer of given thickness, under a certain 
pressure, in a unit of time, the following values for the degree 
of permeability were obtained: 

Dry. Wet. 

Portland cement, neat. 0.05 0.00 

Portland-cement concrete. 0.40 0.00 

The specific gravity of Portland cement is between 3.10 
and 3.25. 

The specific gravity of cement is the figure which denotes 
the density of a sample or the number of times a given volume 
of it is weightier than the same volume of water. 

For cement pipe use the following proportions: one part 
cement to three parts of sand and gravel. After the pipe is 
removed from the mould it should be coated with a wash of 
neat cement and water, of the consistency of paint, applied 
with a brush, to prevent seepage of water when in service. 

Neat cement reaches a greater strength at short periods 
than sand mixtures. Concrete, however, gains in strength 
gradually, and ultimately surpasses neat cement in strength. 

The compressive strength of cement is usually from eight to 
twelve times the tensile strength. 

Quick-setting cement requires more water than slow-setting 
cement. 

Temperature of water and atmospheric conditions naturally 
affect setting time. 

Saline water retards setting. 

A sand mixture of a cement which does not stand the neat 
pat test perfectly may show no imperfections whatever. Sand 
tends to diminish the ill effects of some inferior qualities. 

Finely ground cement has greater capacity for sand, ages 
more rapidly, sets quicker, gets ultimate strength quicker, 
requires more water, is lighter in color, shows lower tensile 
strength in neat briquettes, shows greater tensile strength in 
sand briquettes, than the same cement not so finely ground. 
The finer the grinding, the more active the cement. 

Aged cement as a rule sets slower, shows lower tensile strength 
in early breaks (one, three, and seven days especially), shows 
greater tensile strength in later breaks, is more liable to with¬ 
stand pat tests, has smaller capacity for sand, than the same 
cement when tested fresh. 




72 


NOTES ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


Cement is packed in barrels, cloth sacks, or paper bags, as 
ordered. A barrel of Portland cement contains 380 lbs. net of 
cement, and weighs about 400 lbs. A barrel of eastern natural 
hydraulic cement weighs about 320 lbs gross, and should 
contain 300 lbs. net of cement. A barrel of western natural 
hydraulic cement weighs about 285 lbs. gross, and should 
contain 265 lbs. net of cement. Slag cement weighs 330 lbs. 
to the barrel. Cloth sacks contain one-fourth of a barrel of 
Portland cement, and ordinarily one-third of a barrel of natural 
hydraulic cement. A carload of Portland cement usually 
means 100 barrels (40,000 lbs.); 75 barrels in the minimum 
carload, or the same quantity by weight in cloth or paper 
bags. 

When cement is ordered in cloth sacks, the sacks are charged 
at cost, viz.: 10 cents each in addition to the cost of cement; 
but when the sacks are returned tp the works in good con¬ 
dition, freight prepaid, 10 cent£ is allowed for each, with a 
deduction of 2 cents for wear and tear in some cases. For 
paper bags there is no charge, as they are not to be returned. 
Empty sacks to be returned should be safely tied in bundles 
of 10 or 50, giving the name of the sender. 

Sand weighs from 80 to 100 pounds per cubic foot loose, 
and about 20 lbs. more when well rammed. Crushed lime¬ 
stone weighs about 90 lbs. per cubic foot, varying somewhat 
either way with the size and amount of fine dust. Concrete 
weighs about 140 lbs. per cubic foot. Lime paste about 50 
per cent water, 1 cubic foot of quicklime and 1 cubic foot of 
water make 1|- to 1} cubic feet of stiff lime paste. 

Portland cement loose weighs 70 to 90 lbs. per cubic foot; 
packed, about 110 lbs. per cubic foot. One barrel is 34 cubic 
feet, weighing 380 lbs. net or 400 lbs. gross. Foreign cement 
barrels contain 3^- or less cubic feet. 

Natural hydraulic cement, loose, weighs 50 to 57 lbs. per 
cubic foot; packed, about 80 lbs. per cubic foot. One barrel, 
265 lbs., western cement; 300 lbs., eastern cement. Weights 
of cement and volumes of barrels are not uniform. Nearly 
all natural hydraulic cement is sold in casks, as given above. 

In moulding a concrete block the operation should always be 
continuous and great care exercised in compacting the cement 
next to all parts of mould which form the exterfor surfaces. 
Great care should be exercised in removing the moulds, which 
under ordinary circumstances can be done twenty-four hours 


NOTES ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 73 

after the concrete has been in place. The block, after removal 
of the mould, should be shaded by canvas or heavy burlap and 
kept thoroughly wetted for a number of days. 

Neat cement reaches a greater strength at short periods than 
sand mixtures. Long-time tests prove, however, that sand mix¬ 
tures ultimately attain equal and often greater strength than 
neat cement. 

The compressive strength of cement is from eight to twelve 
times the tensile strength. 

The shearing strength of concrete can be roughly estimated 
at from 60 to 75 per cent of the compressive strength. 

White sand or marble dust used in making concrete gives 
the finished work a lighter color than is attained by using 
ordinary sand. 

When salt is used in concrete to prevent freezing, it should 
always be thoroughly dissolved in water before it is added to 
the cement—8 to 10 per cent of the weight of water used is 
the proportion of salt to use.' 

Cement mortar or concrete is said to have set when it becomes 
non-plastic and its shape cannot be changed without causing 
a crack or fracture. 

Hot water hastens setting time. 

Too much water retards setting time. 

Finely-ground cement has greater capacity for sand. 

“ “ lt ages more rapidly. 

“ “ “ gets ultimate strength quicker. 

11 “ “ requires more water. 

From an engineering standpoint, limes and cements have 
been classified by Taylor and Thompson, in “ Concrete, Plain 
and Reinforced,” as follows: 

Portland Cement; 

Natural Cement; 

Puzzolan Cement; 

Hydraulic Lime; 

Common Lime. 


PART III, 


MORTAR AND MATERIALS FOR MAKING, 
REINFORCED CONCRETE, CONCRETE 
PILES, FORMS AND CENTERING, LAY¬ 
ING OUT WORK, SHORT CUTS, AND 
METHODS OF DOING WORK. 

Mortar and Materials for 3Iaking. —Mortar, like con¬ 
crete (in fact, mortar is a fine concrete), depends for its quality 
and strength upon the materials of which it is made, and on 
the proportions in which the materials are used. 

The use and purpose of mortar usually is to give a bed and 
cause adhesion between the stones or bricks of a wall, and 
also to fill the voids or cavities between the stones or bricks. 

The nature of the mortar to be used will depend on the 
nature of the wall or of the materials of which the wall is to be 
built. 

“ Press” brick or cut stone work will require a fine mortar, 
while a rubble stone wall or a wall of large blocks of stone 
will require a much coarser mortar; likewise ordinary brick¬ 
work requires a coarse mortar. The fineness or coarseness of 
a mortar is governed by the size of the grains of sand used, 
and these grains, no matter what their size may be, should be 
angular and sharp to make good mortar. When making 
mortar it should be remembered that 

Poor materials make poor mortar. 

Too large a proportion of sand makes poor mortar. 

Too fit tie mixing makes poor mortar. 

Good materials, mixed in correct proportions and mixed 
thoroughly, make good mortar. 


74 




MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR xMAKING. 75 


Lime Mortar. —Lime mortar is made by slaking the lime 
and adding sand in the desired proportion. The slaking is 
usually done by putting the lime in a water-tight box and 
covering with water. The lime is then stirred with the hoe so 
as to let the water get to all sides of the lumps of lime and 
thus cause it to slake more readily. Enough water is added 
to make the mixture about the consistency of thick cream. 
It is then run off through a sieve into a larger box, where the 
sand is added and the mortar allowed to cool a little and 
thicken. The amount of sand used is regulated by the quality 
of the lime used, as some limes will take more sand than others. 

The “mortar-man ” when slaking lime can usually tell when 
he has enough sand added as he “runs it off,” but if it is a 
little “rich,” as it usually is, he will add more sand when he 
tempers it up for use. The mortar should have just enough 
sand in it to make it work nicely and not stick to the trowel. 

The “mortar-man,” by a little experience with and watching 
the mortar, will be able to tell at a glance if the mortar is “rich” 
or “poor.” Mortar should be run off at least three days before 
using, so that the lime will have time to cool off and there will 
be no small particles of lime left unslaked and which may slake 
after being built in the wall. 

Lime mortar should not be used in freezing weather, although 
if it is frozen hard and dry without any thawing it hardly ever 
affects it much, but if it is alternately frozen and thawed the 
mortar will lose its strength and be destroyed; so, to be on 
‘the safe side, it is well to follow the rule of using no lime mortar 
in freezing weather. 

Ground lime is now used in nearly all parts of the country, 
as this lime can be mixed and used immediately. 

In making mortar for laying “press” brick or brick with a 
close joint, a fine white sand or marble-dust is generally used. 

The New York Building Code requires that lime mortar be 
made of 1 part of lime and not more than 4 parts of sand. 

Sugar in Mortar. —Sugar has been used for centuries in 
India in the making of lime mortar and is said to add greatly 
to its strength. Experiments were made some years ago to 
ascertain the effect of sugar on Portland cement, and an addi¬ 
tion of from £ to 2 per cent of pure sugar added to Dyckerhoff 
German Portland cement was found to considerably increase 
its strength after three months. The sugar said to “retard 



76 MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR MAKING. 


its setting/’ and thus permit the chemical changes in the cement 
to take place more perfectly, but more than 2 per cent of it 
rendered the cement useless. As sugar is soluble in water it 
should ne ver be used in mortar which is to be used under water. 

P ortland-cement—lime Mortar . 1 —“ There are many kinds 
of work which require a quick-hardening mortar, but for which 
the great strength of a mixture of 1 of cement with 1 to 4 of 
sand is unne essary. The cost of such mortar is also for many 
purposes toe high. A mixture of cement with 5 or more parts 
of sand would give abundant strength, but such mortar works 
too ‘short’ and adheres too imperfectly to the stone or brick; 
it cannot therefore be safely used. In such cases the addition 
of slaked lime or hydraulic lime will correct the faults of poor 
mixtures of cement and sand, and will produce a cheap mortar 
suitable for a great variety of uses. Used in this manner, 
Portland cement may be used with economy for the most 
ordinary purposes. The advantages of Port land-cement-lime 
mortar are its cheapness in comparison with other hydraulic 
materials, its rapid hardening, marked hydraulic properties 
great strength on exposure to air, and remarkable resistance 
to weather. 

“ The following mixtures for cement-lime mortar have been 
found by experience to be most suitable: 

“ Cement, 1 part; sand, 5 parts; lime paste, £ part 
“ 1 “ “ 6 to 7 parts; “ “ 1 “ 

“ 1 “ “ 8 parts; “ “ Imparts 

ti i <i n a tt a 2 “ 

“The above proportions are to be taken by measure. Hy¬ 
draulic lime may be used in the place of ordinary slaked lime. 

“Cement-lime mortar is prepared by making a dry mixture 
of the required quantities of cement and sand; milk of lime 
is then made with the necessary quantities of lime paste and 
water and this milk of lime thoroughly mixed and worked in 
with the mixture of sand and cement.” 

In laying face brick in cement mortar it is advisable to add 
a little lime “putty” to the mortar, as it makes the mortar 
work smooth and the mason can do a neater job. Mixtures 
of cement with three parts or more of sand are found to work 

1 Extracts from “Das Kleine Cement-Buch.” 



MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR MAKING. 77 


* 

too “short” for rapid and easy work in laying brick or stone. 
The addition of lime paste removes this defect and makes 
the mortar smooth and plastic. The adhesion of the mortar 
to brick or stone, and also its impermeability to water, are 
greatly increased by the addition of slaked lime. As to 
strength, it will be found that a mixure of Portland cement 1, 
lime paste 1, sand 6, is as good in every respect as a mixture 
ox Portland cement 1, sand 3; or, in other words, that one-half 
the cement may be replaced by lime paste without loss of 
strength. 

Compared with mortar made with Louisville, the Portland- 
cement-lime mortar will be found immensely stronger and 
little or no more expensive. 

Cement Mortar. — In making cement mortar the strength 
of it depends on the quality of the cement and sand, the pro¬ 
portions used, and'the manner of mixing. The sand should 
be sharp and irregular, as described on page 79, the finest 
depending on the nature of the work in which the mortar is to 
be used. 

For mortar for laying brick or for grouting, it should be 
comparatively fine, while for concrete or coarse mortar it should 
range from fine to coarse. A small amount of pure clay in 
the sand used for cement mortar will not affect its strength. 

Proportions .—The proportions of cement and sand for cement 
mortar varies according to the cement used and the strength 
of the mortar desired. 

The most common mixture is 1 to 3 for Portland cement 
and 1 to 2 for natural cements. There must be enough cement 
to more than fill all the voids in the sand and make a compact 
mass. 

For masonry and brickwork use 1 part cement to 2, 3, or 
4 parts of sand, according to the strength required and the 
purposes for which the mortar is to be used; for some special 
purposes 5, or even 6, parts of sand may be used. 

Cement mortar for face brickwork is usually composed of 
1 part cement and 2 parts sand; for backing and in ordinary 
masonry foundations it is not necessary to use a richer mortar 
than 1 part cement to 3 of sand. When large quantities of 
sand are used the mortar is “short” and brittle and will not 
work well. 

In some cases lime paste is added to the cement mortar to 


78 MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR MAKING. 


give it the required plasticity. The proportions are about 
one-half part lime paste added to the mortar. 

Stone-dust and fine screenings have been used as a substi¬ 
tute for sand and gave as strong a mortar as if sand had been 
used. The tables on pages 54 and 85 show the average 
strength of cement mortars of different proportions and age. 

Water-tight Mortar. —For the lining of cisterns and reser¬ 
voirs, and also in some cases for the protection of underground 
conduits and piping, a mortar which is impermeable to water 
is required. According to Dykerhoff the following mixtures 
will be found water-tight as soon as set: 

Portland cement, 1; sand, 1; 

“ “ 1; “ 2; lime paste, | 

“ ' “ 1; “ 3; “ “ 1 

“ “ 1; “ 5; “ “ 11 

From the above mixtures the one may be chosen which offers 
the required strength and hardness. 

A solution of 1 pound of concentrated lye, 5 pounds of alum, 
and 2 gallons of water mixed with cement in the proportion 
of 1 pint of the solution to 5 pounds of cement and applied 
with a brush and well rubbed in will make cement walls water¬ 
proof. • 

To Color Cement Mortar. — Black. —Use 45 pounds of man¬ 
ganese dioxide to a barrel of cement. 

Brown. —Use 25 pounds of best roasted iron dioxide to a 
barrel of cement, or 15 or 20 pounds of brown ochre. 

Blue. —Use 19 pounds of ultramarine to a barrel of cement. 

Buff. —Use 15 pounds of ochre to a barrel of cement, but this 
will greatly reduce the strength of the mortar. 

Green. —Use 23 pounds of grcenish-bluc ultramarine to a 
barrel of cement. 

Gray. —Use 2 pounds of Germantown lampblack (bone-black) 
to a barrel of cement. 

Red. —Use 22 pounds of raw iron oxide to a barrel of cement. 

Red-bright. —Use 22 pounds of Pompeiian or English red to 
a barrel of cement. 

Purple. —Use 20 pounds of prince’s metallic paint powder 
to a barrel of cement. 

Violet. —Use 22 pounds of violet oxide of iron to a barrel of 
cement. 



MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR MAKING. 79 


Yellow .—Use 22 pounds of ochre to a barrel of cement. 

Ultramarine is one of the best coloring materials, as it does 
not affect the strength of the mortar. Germantown lamp¬ 
black is also good on account of the small quantity necessary 
to give a good color. 

Do not use common lampblack or Venetian red, as they are 
liable to run and fade. 

In coloring mortar the coloring should be mixed in the sand 
and cement dry, and the wet mixture should be made several 
shades darker than required, as the wet mortar looks darker 
and brighter to the eye, owing to the gloss of the water, than 
it really is 

Mortar is one of the principal materials used in construction, 
and upon which the strength and stability of the structure 
depends to a great extent; hence the different materials and 
proportions used in making the mortar should be the best of 
their several kinds. 

Sand. — Sand, which enters largely into the composition 
of all mortars, should be sharp and angular and comparatively 
free from any dirt or loam. Recent experiments have shown 
that a slight percentage of clay in the sand used for cement 
mortar does not affect its strength, but there should not be 
more than 5 per cent of clay in the sand. For rough stonework 
or common brickwork the sand should be coarse, but for “press” 
brick and setting ashlar it should be fine, so as to get a close 
joint. 

The sand for mortar for either stonework or brickwork 
should be clean, coarse, and sharp. A good quartz sand is the 

best. 

A very fine sand does not make as good mortar as the coarse, 
and very fine sand should not be used unless for brickwork 
where a close joint is desired; but when the sand is used in large 
proportions to the lime or cement, a sand ranging from fine to 
coarse will make the best mortar. A loamy or dirty sand 
should not be used, as it will weaken the mortar. 

Marble-dust is often used in place of sand where a close 
joint is desired in the work. 

By taking a small amount of sand and spreading it over 
the hand or examining it with a magnifying-glass a person 
can readily ascertain its quality. 

Quicksand. —Sand which has been worn round and very fine 


80 MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR MAKING. 


by the action of water is known as quicksand and should never 
be used in making mortar or concrete. This sand is easily 
distinguished, as the particles are round and very small, some 
of it being almost a powder. In the pile it is continually running 
down, thus making a very flat pile. 

Good sharp sand can be cut down in the pile with a per¬ 
pendicular face, but this cannot be done with quicksand, as 
it slides like so many round balls. 

When 'used in mortar quicksand will settle to the bottom 
and the mortar has to be continually mixed or tempered. Sand 
of this kind will make a very weak mortar or concrete. 

Lime. —Lime is obtained by burning limestone. When 
carbonate of lime is calcined the carbonic acid is thrown off 
and lime is obtained. It is then known as caustic lime or 
quicklime; if it then be mixed with water it will throw out 
great heat, swell to several times its original bulk, and finally 
falls to a powder. In this state it is known as slaked or a 
hydrate of lime. 

The quality of lime depends on the composition of the lime¬ 
stone from which it is made. Those stones which are nearly 
pure carbonate of lime make the best lime, while those which 
contain large amounts of impurities, such as silica, clay, mag¬ 
nesia, and alkalies, make the poorest lime according to the 
amount of impurities contained. 

Good lime should be free from cinders or unburned 
stone and not contain a large per cent of impurities; over 
10 per cent of impurities makes poor lime and it should be 
rejected. 

Lime should be in large hard pieces and contain little dust. 
When wet with water it should slake readily into a smooth, 
fine paste or putty. The lime should slake by simply im¬ 
mersing it in the water, although stirring it will hasten it some¬ 
what. 

Hydraulic Lime. — Hydraulic lime is made from calcareous 
rock containing 12 to 30 per cent of silica, alumina, iron, and 
magnesia; when calcined at a low temperature it will slake 
and will set and harden in water in from one to ten days to 
five or six months, depending on the amount of silica and 
alumina contained. Hydraulic lime is not used much in this 
country, as natural cement takes its place. The following is 
an average of French hydraulic lime: 


MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR MAKING. 81 


22.0 per cent 
2.0 “ “ 

1.0 “ “ 

63.0 “ “ 

1.5 “ “ 

0.5 “ “ 

10.0 “ “ 

100.0 per cent 

Mortar Made with Caked Cement. —Cement which has 
drawn dampness enough to cause it to cake in the bag can be 
used, providing the cakes can be broken and pulverized on 
the mixing platform with a shovel. Any lumps which cannot 
be easily crushed should be thrown out or considered as a part 
of the aggregate and enough good cement added to take the 
place of these lumps. 

The strength of mortar made with caked cement may be as 
great as the strength of mortar made with cement in good 
condition. A table showing the results of tests on Portland 
cement mortars is given on page 380, Vol. 8, Part IV, Report 
of the Chief Engineers, U. S. A., 1894, from which the following 


has been abstracted: 

Character of Age of Mortar 

Tensile Strength. 

Number of 

Cement. 

when Broken. 

Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Tests Averagf 

Good... 

7 days 

176 

8 

Caked.. 

. . 7 “ 

199 

2 

Good. .. 

.. 28 “ 

298 

8 

Caked.. 

..28 “ 

274 

5 

Good... 

.. 6 mos. 

424 

8 

Caked. . 

.. 6 “ 

424 

5 


The cement that was caked had been exposed to dampness 
in sacks until caked hard, but not set. It was then pulverized 
and treated exactly as the good cement was treated, being 
mixed with 3 parts of standard quartz sand, by weight, to 
1 part of cement. 

Taylor and Thompson in “Concrete Plain and Reinforced” 
states: 

1. “The tensile or compressive strength of Portland cement 
mortars or concretes is not lowered by standing two hours after 
mixing. 

2. “ Continuous gaging increases the ultimate strength. 

3- “Regaging makes the cement slower setting 


Silica. 

Alumina. 

Oxide of iron. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. . . . 
Sulphuric acid 
Water. 













82 MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR MAKING. 


“ With natural cements, however, the results of experiments 
are somewhat contradictory. It is probable that some natural 
cements are injured, and therefore if circumstances require 
delay in placing natural cement mortar, the effect of such delay 
should be determined by tests upon the brand to be used.” 

Relative Strength of Cement Mortar.—'The following 
table gives the result of an experiment made at the Holyoke 
Dam, Mass., showing the tensile strength of various mixes 
and their ratio to standard neat cement mortar. The briquettes 
being kept in water (after twenty-four hours) until broken, 
which at twenty-eight days develops 889 pounds: 


Proportion of 

Sand to Cement. 

Pounds. 

Ratio. 

1 

: 1. 

. 805 

90 

2 

: 1. 

. 589 

68 

3 

: 1. 

. 343 

39 

4 

: 1. 

. 204 

23 

5 

: 1. 

. 133 

15 

6 

: 1. 

. 121 

14 

7 

: 1. 

. 71 

8 

8 

: 1. 

. 53 

6 

9 

1. 

. 44 

5 


Remixed Cement Mortar.—Recent experiments by various 
engineers have shown that remixed Portland cement mortar, 
or mortar that has acquired its initial set and is then remixed 
thoroughly, is as strong after a long period of time as if it had 
not been disturbed after its first set. However, unless for 
special reasons, it is always best to use all mortar before it 
has commenced to set. 

Remixed mortar is much slower setting than the original 
mixture, but is weaker in strength up to about six months, 
after that the strength is about the same. 

The strength of remixed mortar depends on the second 
mixing, which must be thorough, until the mortar is a uniform 
plastic mass. 

Natural or Rosendale cement will not stand remixing as well 
as the Portland cements. 

Mixing Mortar.—In mixing lime mortar the strength of the 
mortar or amount of sand to be used is usually left to the 
judgment of the “mortar-man,” for by experience he can 
tell by the working of the mortar when he has given what 
sand the lime will carry. No definite rule can be given dor 











MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR MAKING. 83 


measuring sand in lime mortar, for some limes will take more 
sand than others. 

In mixing cement mortar the wheelbarrow is often used as 
the unit of measure, but at times it is difficult to get the work¬ 
men to measure correctly by this method, and the author 
presents the following method, which he uses: 

Obtain the depth of the mixing-box and make a straight-edge, 

as shown by A, Fig. 3, so as 
to strike off the sand and cement 
at the proper levels to measure 
it correctly. 

In the example shown by 
Fig. 3 the box us 10 inches 
deep and the mortar to be mixed 

1 to 3. We will notch one side 
of the straight-edge 4 inches, 
which will strike off the sand 
in the box 6 inches deep. On 
the opposite side of the straight¬ 
edge we will make the notch 

2 inches deep, which will strike 
off the cement 2 inches deep on 
top of the sand, thus giving a 
layer of sand 6 inches deep with 

a layer of cement on top 2 inches deep. 

This method can be used for a full box of mortar or any part 
of a box. The author has derived much satisfaction by using 
this method, as it insures the sand and cement being measured 
correctly, and it also spreads the cement over the sand uni¬ 
formly, so that the mixing is much easier and more uniformly 




p 



Fig. 3.—Measuring Mortar 
Materials. 



Fig. 4.—Mortar-box. 


than when the cement is thrown on top of the sand without 
spreading it in a uniform layer. 

Mortar-box. —Fig. 4 shows how a mortar-box should be 
built. The handles at each corner, as shown, enables four 
men to carry it very easily. The ends should always be set 




















84 MORTAR AND MATERIAL FOR MAKING. 


on a slant, as shown, so the blade of the hoe can be got down 
into the angles and the box scraped clean. At the close of 
the day’s work the box should be scraped and washed clean. 

Rules Regarding Jse of Mortar.— Lump lime-mortar 
should be made up three or four days before required for use 
and then tempered as desired. 

Ground lime can be used the same day it is made into mortar, 
but it is better to let it stand a day before using. 

Do not use mortar that is too soft or sloppy, as neat joints 
cannot be made. 

Do not use mortar of any kind in freezing weather. 

Have cement-mortar mixed so that none of it will stand 
over two hours before being used. 

When mixing cement-mortar mix the sand and cement dry 
to a uniform color before adding the water. 

Grouting .—Grout is a thin mortar usually made of sand and 
cement, and is generally used in brickwork, by building up 
the two outside courses of the wall, then laying the inside 
bricks and pouring the thin mortar over them, working it well 
into all the joints. The grouting should be done every course, 
so that all the joints will be filled solid. 

Grouting is done, when extreme strength and solidity are 
desired. 

Mortar for Pointing. —The mortar for pointing should be 
mixed with cement and fine sand or marble dust, so that the 
mortar will dress off smooth under the jointing tool. 

The mortar should be used very stiff and should be rammed or 
packed solid into the joint. 

Ia case the mortar works “brittle” and will not smooth off 
easily, add a little lime putty, not over 10 per cent. 


WHAT ONE BARREL OF LIME WILL DO. 

1 barrel of lime will mike 2| barrels of paste. 

1 “ “ “ 11 lay 3 perch of stone rubble. 

1 “ “ “ “ “ 1000 to 1200 bricks. 

1 <l “ “ 11 plaster 28 yards of 3-c at work. 

1 “ (( “ 11 40 “ a 2 - tl lt 

1 “ " “ “ equals 3 bushels of 80 pounds each. 


Ca>:C£ZT£ 


So 

Tbe z-aI'j-tzlz zestM ci ~ :a ten Ye strength et ?:rhm i-cememr 
m: r -it A nnertn: :rttoc~ tea in.1 ig-r -sere rr~.m> : j ihe Xr~ 
Y :rh State C&nm Commi-s. m The mol nsed was GJens 

Jihs “Iron dad.” 


XFS- YORK STATU CAS4IS. 

L"iPA2 r nc£T!: cw Gtewcr? T Iexes. 

ILeecrd cf egrzeas te?rZ3 r.i :e -wiri she C-jens - i7> I- - Tad ?~r i.r '-' 
eonem. -irT'.^r szres^sk _n -*5ar.iis z*zz *<r*s*re in: A .d bcicsectes 

. • ' - ' ' ' : . ' - ■ : ~me _i . _ : • • - :- ' 

Treats b» each. ease tn* i~iriE zf i e hoqpKTxes. Ctzizm -vas zsed is ~~. ~ 

Hi r id fanqpettes. 


Aznnrasz :f *’• ic«r _eeA 


aec* in 

Wizen 


2 * css. 


-r -n 


Ir -a- 


i- 


iE«u 


1 Oft. 


Fn: ‘.'‘rzi<:iS5 TT~e: in it j 


im’irT 

Xear„ 

I Son it 

2 San ;. 

3 Sand. 

4 Sand. 

3 Sand, 

cf i>ITS. 


1 

I Cement. 

I Canan. 

I Cemenz. 

1 CerwL 

6 

315 

54 S 

S 99TT 

- 


: •': 

133 

12 

■>:o 

3 o& 

54 a 

2.2 

ISO 

15 ) 

1 y 

651 

Col 

423 

o»’— 

— • 


169 

24 

671 

660 

-S 3 

2 ”T 

2 Z 7 

139 

30 

X'xmzer 
er ’i:n.:n 

715 

SCO 

4 =a> 

255 

233 

171 


7 t 4 





3 | 


343 

34 ~ 

225 

IS 4 

6 

r >4 

«a 

34 ) 

441 

217 

:S 9 

9 

744 

72 

4 S«: 

373 

23 d 

2:2 

12 

734 

[ 714 

5 A 5 

360 

:" 

194 

15 

S 3 S 


536 

3 S 5 

■'* r 2 

2>4 

IS 

54 > 

j 

575 

535 

3 S 0 

271 

214 

21 

as: 

7 S 9 

411 

» 

236 


ssEietfi zit-^rsrn RoasacaBj. 

Tezcrj S’ire Engineer and Szrveyrr. 


_Ye ’Y--r-:.r test:? as to the tenaSe strength of nntcrsl- 
eemen- me rear -srere mn tstth the “ Impro ved Shield brand 

ct R osen dale cement: 




^ Xesc 
Cement. 

I Cement, 

2 SviDi. 

Xtaasie szrenr-z. is..-. 

*4 •* 

24 bx&s 
5 days 

30 44 

60 “ 

9 *: “ 
iso **■ 

360 ** 

US Ebs. 
161 k4 
ZH “ 
31S “ 
374 ** 
3«6 “ 
440 “ 
501 ** 

:::::: 


142 lbs. 

<y-c *fc 

352 44 
41S 44 
500 44 
566 44 

M M •• 

« * • * •• 

•* •• •« 

M *« 

U •• •• 














































86 LONG-TIME TESTS. 


CT3 
O c3 
O 
cc -2 

JTS 

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TJ C 
VS 

.ts a 

C 

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m 0) 0) 

£5* 

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$W §> 

g«« 

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CP A 

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^ CP O 

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■£*3 

rtiSW 
035 
C r « C 
fa-- 


Fine 

ness t 

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11.7 

to 

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584 

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416 

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6 Years. 

583 

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t- '— ■—' 
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646 

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120 

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185 

3 Years. 

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cor-oo 

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CP 

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ui 4 a3uiaAy 

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2 Years. 

TfTf <M 

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CO 50 to 

rH CD CP 

TtCOrH 

cDiOrf 

£ 

rH 

•saganbug 
jo aaquin^ 

1398 

220 

226 

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2934 

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Mode of 
Mixing. 

Neat 

2 to 1 

3 to 1 

Neat 

2 to 1 

3 to 1 


Neat 

2 to 1 

3 to 1 

Neat 

2 to 1 

3 to 1 

Brand 

"Giant” Portland. 

* Sodom and Bog 
Brook Dams, New 
York Aqueduct. . . . 

Titicus Dam, New 
York Aqueduct. 


* Sodom and Bog 
Brook Dams, New 
York Aqueduct .... 

Titicus Dam, New 
York Aqueduct .... 


* Up to 4 years briquettes at Sodom were broken in the laboratory on the dam. Subsequently they were broken at Cornell 
Dam, after having been out of water for some months, between October, 1893, and June, 1894, which explains the temporary 
falling off. 























































































LONG-TIME TESTS— Continued. 


LONG-TIME TESTS, 


87 


Fine¬ 

ness. 

*3A3Ig 

001 ON 
uo anptsag 

14.7 



14.79 


14.9 



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568 

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3 to 1 

3 to 1 from 
mortar box 

Neat 

3 to 1 

2 to 1 from 
mortar box 

Neat 

2 to 1 

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Boston, Mass. 









































































































88 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


/ 

Reinforced Concrete. —This work not being intended as 

a text-book for engineers, but as a help to the ordinary me¬ 
chanic or worker in concrete, no intricate formulas or com¬ 
plicated- diagrams regarding strength of reinforced concrete 
will be given, but the following on reinforced concrete, and 
which is used by permission of the Atlas Cement Co., should 
be of great value to any mechanic or worker in concrete con¬ 
struction. 

“ Reinforced concrete is ordinary concrete in which iron or 
steel rods or wire are imbedded. Reinforcement is required 
when the concrete is liable to be pulled or bent, as in beams, 
floors, posts, walls, or tanks, because, while concrete is as 
strong as stone masonry, neither of these materials has nearly 
so much strength in tension as jn compression. Moreover, 
concrete alone, like any natural stone, is brittle, but by im¬ 
bedding in it steel rods or other reinforcement, the cement 
adheres, and the metal binds the particles together so that 
the reinforced concrete is better adapted to withstand jar 
and impact. Even railway bridges are built, not only in arch 
form, like a stone arch, but in some cases like a steel girder 
bridge, with a flat reinforced concrete floor supported by hori¬ 
zontal beams of the same material. 

‘‘ For reinforcement, plain round or square rods may be used, 
or rods with irregular surfaces, many of which are patented, 
so designed as to adhere more strongly to the concrete in which 
they are imbedded. For floor or roof slabs, steel is sometimes 
formed in sheets like wire lathing, or expanded metal, or woven 
wire fabric. 

“ An engineer or architect experienced in reinforced concrete 
design should be employed in preparing the plans for houses, 
bams, or other large structures, but by carefully following 
the directions and specifications in this book, small reinforced 
concrete construction may be safely undertaken by any cement 
worker. The table which follows gives the thickness and 
reinforcement of slabs, and the dimensions and reinforcement 
of reinforced concrete beams for a number of conditions which 
are liable to be met with in common practice. While the 
values are as low as should be adopted without knowing the 
local conditions, complete mathematical calculations of di¬ 
mensions should be made for large structures, not only from 
the standpoint of safety, but also because of the saving in cost 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


89 


of material which can be effected by fitting each member in 
its proper place. 

“Rules which are written as foot¬ 
notes to the table, give very impor¬ 
tant directions. 

“ An invaluable rule in placing steel 
is to insert it in the face where the 
pull will come. Thus, in a beam or 
slab, it must be close to the bottom. 

In a wall to withstand earth pressure, 
it must be in the face nearest the 
earth. If, for example, a beam were 
designed according to the table, but 
the steel placed in the middle or top 
of the beam instead of in the bottom, 
it would certainly break under a very 
light load. There must be only enough 
concrete outside of the steel to protect 
it from rusting or fire. In floor or 
roof-slabs of small structures, this 
thickness should be I inch to | inch 
below the bottom of the steel, and for 
beams, from 1 to H inches. 

“ A typical beam with its connecting 
floor slabs, the concrete of both of 
which should be laid at the same ope¬ 
ration. is shown in Fig. 5. It will be 
seen that the beam reinforcement con¬ 
sists of rods running lengthwise of the 
beam.—one-half or one-third of these 
rods being bent up about one-third 
way from each end and extending 
over the supports, as shown in Fig. 5, 

—and U-shaped bars or stirrups, 
which pass under the longitudinal 
rods and up on each side of the beam. 

The horizontal bars withstand the 
direct pull in the bottom of the beam 
due to bending when a load is placed 
upon it; the U-bars or stirrups and 
the bent-up bars prevent diagonal 
cracks, which sometimes occur under loading, 




=1 t 




and 


bars 


LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH BEAM 

Fig. C. —Typical Beam and Floor Slab. 













































90 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 



C 

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llouro, 110 Poiindw i'li;u, Hgtuitiii Foot, 


REINFORCED CONCRETE 


91 




































92 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


placed just above the bottom surface at the center of the 
span and then bent upward over the supports, as shown by 
Fig. 5. 

“Maximum size of broken stone or gravel should not be over 
1 inch diameter in order to pass between and under the steel 
rods. Consistency of concrete should be like heavy cream.” 

The ratio of cement to the aggregate for use in reinforced 
concrete should be about 5 to 1 for ordinary beams and floors 
and 4 to 1 for columns, etc. 

Metal Reinforcements for Concrete. —Fig. 6 shows a 
number of metal reinforcements now used by various com¬ 
panies and engineers for reinforcing concrete. 

The twisted bar shown is used by the Ransome System, 
and is one of the first methods of reinforcement used in this 
country, it having been patented and used by Mr. Ransome 
in San Francisco in 1884. 

A twisted bar of slightly different se tion is made by the 
Buffalo Steel Co., Tonawanda, N. Y. This bar before being 
twisted is a square section having a bead on each corner. 

The Kahn bar is a square bar rolled with a web or flange on 
opposite corners.' This flange is cut and turned up as shown, 
the short pieces of the flange acting as member of a truss when 
bedded in the concrete. This bar is used by the Trussed Con¬ 
crete Steel Co. of Detroit. This company also manufactures 
the “Truss-cone” bar, as shown. 

The “Unit” System. —In this system the different reinforc¬ 
ing members of a beam are bolted and fastened together and 
put in place as a unit; hence its name. It is controlled by 
the Unit Concrete Steel Frame Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 

The “Universal” bar is a rectangular bar rolled with pockets 
or depressions on its face into which the concrete is forced, 
and which gives it great adhesive power. It is manufactured 
by the Rogers-Hall Company, Warren, Pa. 

The Cummings system shown is the invention of Robt. A. 
Cummings, Pittsburg, Pa. Its different members are round 
and flat rods bent to the shapes shown. 

The Johnson bar is controlled by the St. .Louis Expanded 
Metal Company. It is a square bar with depressions rolled 
in it as shown, and which give a mechanical bond between 
the iron and concrete. 

The Thatcher bar is a rolled bar as shown, with raised por¬ 
tions to engage in the concrete. It is manufactured by the 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


93 


Concrete Steel Engineering Co., New York. This company 
also controls the “Diamond Bar,” a round bar having a series 
of raised corrugations. 



RANSOME TWISTED BAR 



KAHN BAR 



JOHNSON BAR 




THE MENSCH-CORRUGATED BAR 


THATCHER BAR 



. 

EXPANDED METAL 4 



REINFORCING WIRE FABRIC 



METHOD OF SPLICING FABRIC 



DETAIL OF LOCK AND FA'BRIC 


INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM 

Fig. 6.-~Various Types of Metal Reinforcing for Concrete. 

The Mensch Corrugated bar is patented and manufactured 
r L. J. Mensch, Chicago. It is a round section having raised 
;igs or corrugations at regular intervals. 










































































































94 


REINFORCED CONCRETE 


Expanded Metal— This method of reinforcing is controlled 
largely by the Associated Expanded Metal Companies, which 
have offices in all of the large cities. The General Fire-proofing 
Company, Youngstown, Ohio, also manufacture expanded metal. 

Wire Reinforcement. —There are several makes of wire 
fabric reinforcement for concrete on the market. The rein¬ 
forcing wire fabric shown is manufactured by the American 
Wire Fence Co., Chicago. 

The International System is also a wire reinforcement, and is 
manufactured by the International Fence and Fire-proofing Co., 
Columbus, Ohio. 

Reinforcing rods which have a mechanical bond with the 
concrete are superior to the plain rods, which depend for their 
bond entirely on the aJ hesion between the rod and the con¬ 
crete. Plain rods will often lose a considerable amount of 
their adhesive strength by being struck by careless workmen 
before the concrete is entirely hard and which will break the 
adhesion along considerable length of the rod. Fig. 134, 
p. 203, shows the mechanical bond between a deformed or 
corrugated bar and the concrete. 


WEIGHT OF REINFORCED CORCRETE IN SLABS OR BEAMS. 
Taylor and Thompson have prepared the following table, 
using 150 lbs. per cu. ft. for cinder concrete and 4 lbs. per cu. ft. 
for 1 per cent of reinforced steel: 


Weight of Reinforced Slabs 
Foot. 

per Square 

Weight of Reinforced 
Beam 1 In. Wide 
per Foot of Length. 

Thickness. 

Inches. 

Stone 

Concrete. 

Pounds. 

Cinder 

Concrete. 

Pounds. 

Depth 

of 

Beam. 

Stone 

Concrete. 

Pounds. 

2 

26 

19 

6 

6.4 

21 

32 

24 

7 

7.5 

3 

38 

29 

8 

8.6 

3* 

45 

34 

9 

9.6 

4 

51 

39 

10 

10.7 

41 

58 

43 

12 

12.8 

5 

64 

48 

14 

15.0 

51 

70 

53 

16 

17.1 

6 

77 

58 

18 

19.2 

7 

90 

68 

20 

21.4 

8 

103 

77 

25 

26.8 

9 

115 

87 

30 

32.1 

10 

128 

97 

35 

37.4 







REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


95 


Placing Concrete Around Metal Reinforcing. —Great 
care and judgment must be exercised when placing concrete 
around reinforcing rods, or metal reinforcing of any kind. 
The rods must be put in at the point designated by the engi¬ 
neer on the drawings, and they must be bedded solidly in the 
concrete, and all parts of the rod must have contact and ad¬ 
hesion with the concrete. 

When the rods or metal reinforcing is put in place before 
any concrete is deposited, care must be taken not to knock 
them out of position and to see that the concrete is filled solid 
up to the bottom of the rod before any concrete is put on 
top of it. 

Expanded' metal and woven-wire floor-slab reinforcing is 
usually stretched across the forms before any concrete is de¬ 
posited, then a thin layer (about an inch thick) of concrete is 
spread uniformly over the metal and with a hook or the corner 
of the shovel the metal is pulled up through the concrete, leav¬ 
ing this thin layer on the forms with the metal laying on top. 
Then the rest of the concrete is deposited and rammed in place. 
This places the metal reinforcement about three quarters of 
an inch from the bottom of the concrete slab. 

Unless care is taken to bring the metal up through this thin 
layer of concrete the metal will show on the underside of the 
slab, and this is sufficient cause for rejection under the building 
laws of the larger cities. 

Rules for Reinforced Concrete Construction.— The 

following regulations for reinforced concrete-steel construction 
were issued by the Bureau of Buildings of the Borough of Man¬ 
hattan, Greater New York, September 9, 1903: 

1. The term “concrete-steel’’ in these regulations shall be 
understood to mean an approved concrete mixed reinforced 
by steel of any shape, so combined that the steel will 
take up the tensional stresses and assist in the resistance to 
shear. 

2. Concrete-steel construction will be approved only for 
buildings which are not required to be fire-proof by the Build¬ 
ing Code, unless satisfactory fire and water tests shall have 
been made under the supervision of this bureau. Such tests 
shall be made in accordance with the regulations fixed by this 
bureau and conducted as nearly as practicable in the same 
manner as prescribed for fire-proof floor fillings in Section 106 
of the Building Code. Each company offering a system of 


96 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


concrete-steel construction for fire-proof buildings must submit 
such construction to a fire and water test. 

3. Before permission to erect any concrete-steel structure 
is issued complete drawings and specifications must be filed 
with the superintendent of buildings, showing all details of the 
construction, the size and position of all reinforcing-rods, 
stirrups, etc., and giving the composition of the concrete. 

4. The execution of work shall be confided to workmen 
who shall be under the control of a competent foreman or 
superintendent. 

5. The concrete must be mixed in the proportions of one 
of cement, two of sand, and four of stone or gravel; or the 
proportions may be such that the resistance of the concrete 
to crushing shall not be less than 2000 pounds per square inch 
after hardening for 28 days. The tests to determine this value 
must be made under the direction of the superintendent of 
buildings. The concrete used in concrcte-steel construction 
must be what is usually known as a “wet” mixture. 

6. Only high-grade Portland cements shall be permitted 
in concrete-steel construction. Such cements, when tested 
neat, shall, after one day in air, develop a tensile strength of 
at least 300 pounds per square inch; and after one day in air 
and six days in water shall develop a tensile strength of at least 
590 pounds per square inch; and after one day in air and 27 
days in water shall develop a tensile strength of at least 600 
pounds per square inch. Other tests, as to fineness, constancy 
of volume, etc., made in accordance with the standard method 
prescribed by the American Society of Civil Engineers’ Com¬ 
mittee, may from time to time be prescribed by the superin¬ 
tendent of buildings. 

7. The sand to be used must be clean, sharp, grit sand free 
from loam or dirt, and shall not be finer than the standard 
sample of the Bureau of Buildings. 

8. The stone used in the concrete shall be a clean, broken 
trap-rock or gravel of a size that will pass through a f-inch 
ring. In case it is desired to use any other material or other 
kind of stone than that specified, samples of same must first be 
submitted to and approved by the superintendent of buildings. 

9. The steel shall meet the requirements of Section 21 of 
the Building Code. 

10. Concrcte-steel shall be so designed that the stresses in 
the concrete and the steel shall not exceed the following limits: 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


97 


Pounds per 
Square Inch. 


Extreme fibre stress on concrete in compression. 500 

Shearing stress in concrete. 50 

Concrete in direct compression. 350 

Tensile stress in steel.. 16,000 

Shearing stress in steel. 10,000 


11. The adhesion of concrete to steel shall be assumed to 
be not greater than the shearing strength of the concrete. 

12. The ratio of the moduli of elasticity of concrete and 
steel shall be taken as 1 to 12. 

13. .The following assumption shall guide in the determina¬ 
tion of the bending moments due to the external forces: Beams 
and girders shall be considered as simply supported at the 
ends, no allowance being made for the continuous construction 
over supports. Floor plates, when constructed continuous 
and when provided with reinforcement at top of plate over 
the supports, may be treated as continuous beams, the bending 
moment for uniformly distributed loads being taken at not 

less than the bending moment may be taken as in 

the case of square floor plates which are reinforced in both 
directions and supported on all sides. The floor plate to the 
extent of not more than ten times the width of any beam or 
girder may be taken as part of that beam or girder in com¬ 
puting its moment of resistance. 

14. The moment of resistance of any concrete-steel con¬ 
struction under transverse loads shall be determined by for¬ 
mulas based on the following assumptions: 

а. The bond between the concrete and steel is sufficient to 
make the two materials act together as a homogeneous solid. 

б. The strain in any fibre is directly proportionate to the 
distance of that fibre from the neutral axis. 

c. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete remains constant 
within the limits of the working stresses fixed in these regulations. 

Frc m these assumptions it follows that the stress in any 
fibre is directly proportionate to the distance of that fibre 
from the neutral axis. 

The tensile strength of the concrete shall not be considered. 

15. When the shearing stresses developed in any part of a 
construction exceed the safe working-strength concrete, as 







98 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


fixed in these regulations^ a sufficient amount of steel shall be 
introduced in such a position that the deficiency in the resist¬ 
ance to shear is overcome. 

16. When the safe limit of adhesion between the concrete 
and steel is exceeded, some provision must be made for trans¬ 
mitting the strength of the steel to the concrete. 

17. Concrete-steel may be used for columns in which the 
ratio of length to least side or diameter does not exceed 12. 
The reinforcing-rods must be tied together at intervals of not 
more than the least side or diameter of the column. 

18. The contractor must be prepared to make load tests 
on any portion of a concrete-steel construction, within a reason¬ 
able time after erection, as often as may be required by the 
superintendent of buildings. The tests must show that the 
construction will sustain a load of three times that for which 
it is designed without any sign of failure. 

Approved September 9, 1903. 

Henry S. Thompson, 

Superintendent of Buildings for the Borough of Manhattan. 

Concrete-floor Construction. — There are a number of 
different systems of concrete-floor construction and fireproofing, 
each being controlled by a different company, and it will be 
the duty of any one in charge of cement and concrete con¬ 
struction to keep himself posted regarding all the different 
systems, so that when one is put under his supervision he can 
readily judge if it is being done right. 

A system of floor construction may be perfectly reliable 
when properly constructed; but with poor material or work¬ 
manship it may result in a weak floor. 

Cinder concrete reinforced in different ways with steel is the 
usual construction, and in work of this kind all the materials 
should be the best, and the reinforcing and workmanship done 
in a proper manner. 

The proportions for a good cinder concrete are one part 
cement, two parts sand, and five parts cinders. 

Regarding fire-proof floors the New York Building Code says: 

Sec. 106. Fire-proof Floors. —Fire-proof floors shall be con¬ 
structed with wrought-iron or steel floor-beams so arranged 
as to spacing and length of beams that the load to be sup¬ 
ported by them, together with the weights of the materials 
used in the construction of the said floors, shall not cause a 
greater deflection of the said beams than one-thirtieth of an 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


99 


inch per foot of span under the total load; and they shall be 
tied together at intervals of not more than eight times the 
depth of the beam. Between the wrought-iron or steel floor- 
beams shall be placed brick arches springing from the lower 
flange of the steel beams. Said brick arches shall be designed 
with a rise to safely carry the imposed load, but never less than 
one and one-quarter inches for each foot of span between 
the beams, and they shall have a thickness of not less than 
four inches for spans of five feet or less and eight inches for 
spans over five feet, or such thickness as may be required by 
the Board of Buildings. Said brick arches shall be com¬ 
posed of good, hard brick or hollow brick of ordinary dimen¬ 
sions laid to a line on the centres, properly and solidly bonded, 
each longitudinal line of brick breaking joints with the adjoin¬ 
ing lines in the same ring and with the ring under it when more 
than a four-inch arch is used. The brick shall be well wet 
and the joints filled in (.solid with cement mortar. The arches 
shall be well grouted and properly keyed. Or the space be¬ 
tween the beams may be filled in with hollow-tile arches of 
hard-burnt clay or porous terra-cotta of uniform density and 
hardness of burn. The skew-backs shall be of such form and 
section as to properly receive the thrust of said arch; and the 
said arches shall be of a depth and sectional area to carry the 
load to be imposed thereon, without straining the material 
beyond its safe working load, but said depth shall not be less 
than one and three-quarter inches for each foot of span, not 
including any portion of the depth of the tile projecting below 
the under side of the beams, a variable distance being allowed 
of not over six inches in the span between the beams, if the 
soffits of the tile are straight; but if said arches are segmental, 
having a rise of not less than one and one-quarter inches for 
each foot of span, the depth of the tile shall be not less than 
six inches. The joints shall be solidly filled with cement mor¬ 
tar as required for common brick arches and the arch so con¬ 
structed that the key block shall always fall in the central 
portion. The shells and webs of all end construction blocks 
shall abut, one against another. Or the space between the 
beams may be filled with arches of Portland-cement concrete, 
segmental in form, and which shall have a rise of not less than 
one and one-quarter inches for each foot of span between the 
beams. The concrete shall be not less than four inches in 


100 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


thickness at the crown of the arch and shall be mixed in the 
proportions required by Section 18 of this Code. These arches 
shall in all cases be reinforced and protected on the under side 
with corrugated or sheet steel, steel ribs, or metal in other 
forms weighing not less than one pound per square foot and 
having no openings larger than three inches square. Or between 
the said beams may be placed solid or hollow bumt-ciay, stone, 
brick, or concrete slabs in flat or curved shapes, concrete or 
other fire-proof composition, and any of said materials may be 
used in combination with wire cloth, expanded metal wire 
strands, or wrought-iron or steel bars; but in any such con¬ 
struction and as a precedent condition to the same being used, 
tests shall be made as herein provided by the manufacturer 
thereof under the direction and to the satisfaction of the Board 
of Buildings, and evidence of the same shall be kept on file 
in the Department of Buildings, showing the nature of the 
test and the result of the test. Such tests shall be made by 
constructing within inclosure walls a platform consisting of 
four rolled steel beams, ten inches deep, weighing each twenty- 
five pounds per lineal foot, and placed four feet between the 
centres, and connected by transverse tie-rods, and with a clear 
span of fourteen feet for the two interior beams and with the 
two outer beams supported on the side walls throughout their 
length, and with both a filling between the said beams and a 
fire-proof protection of the exposed parts of the beams of the 
system to be tested, constructed as in actual practice, with the 
quality of material ordinarily used in that system and the ceil¬ 
ing plastered below, as in a finished job; such filling between 
the two interior beams being loaded with a distributed load of 
one hundred and fifty pounds per square foot of its area and 
all carried by such filling; and subjecting the platform so con¬ 
structed to the continuous heat of a wood fire below, averag¬ 
ing not less than seventeen hundred degrees Fahrenheit for 
not less than four hours, during which time the platform shall 
have remained in such condition that no flame will have passed 
through the platform or any part of the same, and that no 
part of the load shall have fallen through, and that the beams 
shall have been protected from the heat to the extent that after 
applying to the under side of the platform at the end of tlie 
heat test a stream of water directed against the bottom of the 
platform and discharged through a one and one-eighth inch 


REINFORCED CONCRETE. 


101 


nozzle under sixty pounds pressure for five minutes, and after 
flooding the top of the platform with water under low pres¬ 
sure, and then again applying the stream of water through 
the nozzle under the sixty pounds pressure to the bottom of 
the platform for five minutes, and after a total load of six 
hundred pounds per square foot uniformly distributed over 
the middle bay shall have been applied and removed, after the 
platform shall have cooled, the maximum deflection of the 
interior beams shall not exceed two and one-half inches. The 
Board of Buildings may from time to time prescribe additional 
or different tests than the foregoing for systems of filling between 
iron or steel floor-beams, and the protection of the exposed 
parts of the beams. Any system failing to meet the require¬ 
ments of the test of heat, water, and weight as herein prescribed 
shall be prohibited from use in any building hereafter erected. 
Duly authenticated records of the tests heretofore made of 
any system of fire-proof floor filling and protection of the ex¬ 
posed parts of the beams may be presented to the Board of 
Buildings, and if the same be satisfactory to said Board, it 
shall be accepted as conclusive. No filling of any kind which 
may be injured by frost shall be placed between said floor-beams 
during freezing weather, and if the same is so placed during 
any winter month, it shall be temporarily covered with suitable 
material for protection from being frozen. On top of any 
arch, lintel, or other device which does not extend to and form 
a horizontal line with the top of the said floor-beams, cinder 
concrete or other suitable fire-proof material shall be placed 
to solidly fill up the space, to a level with the top of the said 
floor-beams, and shall be carried to the under side of the wood 
floor-boards in case such be used. Temporary centring when 
used in placing fire-proof systems between floor-beams shall 
not be removed within twenty-four hours or until such time 
as the mortar or material has set. All fire-proof floor systems 
shall be of sufficient strength to safely carry the load to be 
imposed thereon without straining the material in any case 
beyond its safe working load. The bottom flanges of all wrought- 
iron or rolled-steel floor and flat roof beams, and all exposed 
portions of such beams below the abutments of the floor-arches, 
shall be entirely encased with hard-burnt clay, porous terra¬ 
cotta, or other fire-proof material allowed to be used for the filling 
between the beams under the provisions of this section, such 
incasing material to be properly secured to the 


102 


CONCRETE PILES AND CAPPING. 


The exposed sides and bottom plates or flanges of wrcrught- 
iron or rolled-steel girders supporting iron or steel floor-beams, 
or supporting floor-arches or floors, shall be entirely incased in 
the same manner. Openings through fire-proof floors for pipes, 
conduits, and similar purposes shall be shown on the plans. 
After the floors are constructed no opening greater than eight 
inches square shall be cut through said floors unless properly boxed 
or framed around with iron. And such openings shall be filled 
in with fire-proof material after the pipes or conduits are in place. 

Sec. 107. Incasing Interior Columns ,—All cast-iron, wrought- 
iron, or rolled-steel columns, including the lugs and brackets on 
same, used in the interior of any fire-proof building, or used to 
support any fire-proof floor, shall be protected with not less 
than two inches of fire-proof material, securely applied. The 
extreme outer edge of lugs, brackets, and similar supporting 
metal may project to within seven-eighths of an inch of the 
surface of the fireproofing. 

Concrete Piles.—Concrete piles are now being used with 
good success. One form of pile, Fig. 7, is made by casting 
the concrete and reinforcing it with steel. After they are 
thoroughly set and dry they are driven like an ordinary pile, 
except a special cap is used to prevent shattering the head 
of the pile. Another type called the Raymond, Fig. 8, 
has been used, which consists of a thin shell of metal with a 
strong core inside to take the shock of driving; after the shell 
and core are driven to the desired depth, the core, which is col¬ 
lapsible, is withdrawn and the shell filled with concrete. These 
piles are usually made with a large taper, as this gives them 
a large bearing area and permits the core to be taken out easily; 
about 6 inches at the bottom and 20 inches at the top is the 
usual size. By a test made in Chicago, one of these piles carried 
as much as three wooden ones having the same diameter at 
the point. And at Schenectady, N. Y., they were loaded with 
from 32,000 to 48,000 pounds per pile without settlement. The 
soil was a soft fill. 

Figs. 9 and 10 show what is known as the Simplex Pile. 
A wrought-iron or steel cylinder with a concrete point is driven 
like any ordinary pile, then the reinforcing is put inside the 
shell and it is filled with concrete, the shell being drawn as the 
concrete is filled up. 

There have been used in the building of the wharves in San 
Francisco harbor concrete piles made by forcing down a shell 


CONCRETE PILES AND CAPPING. 


103 


ipf wood 2 to 3 feet in diameter and after pumping it out filling 
it with concrete. The wooden shell is left on and by the time 
it decays or the teredo has destroyed it the concrete is hard 
and a concrete pile is the result. (See page 50 as to mixing 
concrete, etc.) 






Fig. 7. 


Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 

Concrete Piles. 


Fig 10. 


Concrete Capping. —Concrete, which is much used for cap¬ 
ping of piles, is one of the best materials for this purpose, for 
when it is put in properly it forms one continuous stone 
having a solid bed on all the piles. The piles should be cut 
off square and the dirt cleaned away so the concrete can be 



















































104 


CONCRETE PILES AND CAPPING. 


rammed around and between the piles to a depth of a foot or 
more. 

Concrete capping is very often reinforced with steel beams 
or railroad rails. These should be free from rust or dirt and 
coated with asphalt, or close attention given to covering them 
with a coat of cement mortar or concrete. If the concrete is 
rammed solid enough around the beams it will in itself form 
a protection, but this takes much care and time and will require 
the strict attention of the superintendent. The New York 
building code says: 

“The tops of all piles shall be cut off below the lowest water 
line. When required, concrete shall be rammed down in the 
interspaces between the heads of the piles to a depth and thick¬ 
ness not less than 12 inches and for 1 foot in width outside 
the piles. Where ranging and capping timbers are laid on 
the piles for foundations, they shall be of hard wood not less 
than 6 inches thick and properly joined together, and their 
tops laid below the lowest water line. Where metal is incor¬ 
porated in or forms part of the foundation it shall be thoroughly 
protected from rust by paint, asphaltum, concrete, or by such 
materials and in such manner as may be approved by the 
Commissioner of Buildings. When footings of iron or steel 
for columns are placed below the water level, they shall be 
similarly coated or enclosed in concrete for preservation 
from rust.” 

When concrete is used for capping it should be allowed to 
harden before any additional weight is built upon it, or the 
ground may give between the piles and the piles will act like 
a scries of punches forcing their way up through the concrete. 

Wood Forms. —Pine, spruce, or fir are the best woods to 
use for the construction of forms for concrete work. Some 
of the other woods, especially California red wood or chestnut, 
will stain the finished surface of the concrete. 

The wood for forms should not be too dry or it will swell 
and warp when the wet concrete is put against it. The plank¬ 
ing should be 2 inches thick, surfaced on one side to an even 
thickness, of about 1| inches, and the edges beveled, as shown 
by Fig. 11. This will make a tight joint, and allow the plank¬ 
ing to swell a little without warping. 

The forms for concrete should always be made strong and 
rigid, so they will withstand the pressure of the wet concrete. 


FORMS AND CENTERING. 


105 


One of the most important points of a good piece of con¬ 
crete work is the building of forms. When there are to be 
any recesses or chases in the finished concrete, cores must be 
put in to form these chases, etc., and when the face of the 



Fia. 11.—Beveled Planks for Forms. 


concrete is to be laid off in blocks in imitation of stonework 
with rusticated joints, wood strips must be put in place to form 
these rustications, as shown by Fig. 130, p. 183. 

To make a smooth surface keep the dressed side of the plank¬ 
ing next the concrete and to keep them from adhering to the 



concrete they can be given a coat of crude oil, or soap dissolved 
in water, just before depositing the concrete. If it is intended 
to allow the concrete to harden for about two weeks before 
removing the forms, it will not be necessary to oil them, as the 
hard concrete will not stick. 

For ordinary walls, foundations, etc., forms can be built, 
as shown by Fig. 12. 2"X4" or 2"X6" uprights, spaced about 

2 feet apart for 1-inch planking, or not over 4 feet for 2-inch 
planking. 

These uprights can be pointed and driven in the ground as 
shown, then braced and stayed so as to hold them in position; 
then the planking put in place. 

















106 


FORMS AND CENTERING. 


If a spread footing is desired keep the planking up as shown, 
allowing the concrete to spread out on the sides to form a 
footing, as shown. 

For walls over 3 feet in heigth bolts should be used, as shown, to 

keep the forms from spreading. 
A spreader, as at A, Fig. 12, 
should be cut in, and the 
bolt tightened enough to hold 
this spreader in place, then 
when the concrete is tamped 
into place it will cause pres¬ 
sure enough to loosen the 
spreader, which can then be 

Fig. 13.—Withdrawing Bolt fro m taken out. 

Forms. The bolt s h 0 uld be greased 

with oil, or rubbed with soap, or wrapped with paper, so it 
can be easily taken out of theconcrete and the hole filled 
with cement. It is a good idea to have a thread and nut 
on both ends of the bolts, then the forms can all be taken off 
the bolts before they are driven out. This saves the time of 
trying to take out the bolts along with the forms. 

To withdraw tight bolts tilt the washer and use a small 
bar as a lever, as shown by Fig. 13. The washer will bind 





Fig 14.—Sullivan Plank Holders. 


on the bolt and not slip; as the bolt is withdrawn, drop the 
washer down, taking a new “bite.” 

Metal form or plank-holders are now manufactured, and 
which greatly facilitate the building of forms for concrete 
work. 

Fig. 14 shows a pressed-steel holder and Figs. 15 to 17 show 
it being used in walls, with bolts run through to prevent spread¬ 
ing. 

Figs. 16 and 17 show how it is used in angles, etc. This 












FORMS AND CENTERING. 


107 



Fio. 15.—Sullivan Plank-holder as Used for Walls. 
























10S 


FORMS AND CENTERING. 



plank-holder is manufactured by J. H. Sullivan, Grand Rapids, 
Mich. 

Forms or Centering for Floor Construction.—F ig. 18 


Fia. 18.—Floor Centering. 


shows a form or centering as generally used for floor construc¬ 
tion. 

A stringer is run across the top of the floor beams and by 
means of hook bolts another stringer is suspended at the desired 



distance below the beams, then the centering is built in place 
as shown. 

Fig. 19 shows another method of supporting floor centering 
by means of stirrups. The stirrups are made from 
round iron and hooked over the top of the beams as shown, 
to carry the lower stringer. 

When the centering is removed the stirrups are cut off flush 
with the underside of the concrete. 

When the. soffits of the beams are not to be covered with 











































FORMS AND CENTERING. 


109 


concrete the centering can be built, as shown by Fig. 20, the 
ribs or cross pieces resting on the lower flange of the beams 
as shown. 

The plank forming the mould for the haunch of the beam 
is notched down over the lugs on the end of the ribs, as shown, 



and a nail driven through the rib, as indicated, to take the 
strain on the part of the plank notched over the rib, and pre¬ 
vent it being split off when the concrete is rammed in place, 
or if desired, blocks can be nailed on the side of the ribs for the 
same purpose. 

The ribs should be made in two pieces and bolted together, 
as shown at A, Fig. 20. In this way they are easily removed by 



Fig. 21. —Arch with Corrugated Sheet Metal Centering. 


taking out the bolts, and can also be adjusted to different 
spacing of beams. 

Fig. 21 shows a similar floor arch with corrugated metal 
centering, and which is left in place when the floor is finished. 

A floor arch with arches and centering of this kind can be 
built as cheap as that shown by Fig. 20, and is a much better 
and stronger arch. 

Fig. 22 shows a hanger for floor centering, patented by J. H. 





















































110 


FORMS AND CENTERING. 


Dousman, Kansas City, Mo. Special nuts are made to lay on 
the lower flange of the beams as shown. When the centering 
is taken down the bolts are taken out and the nuts are left 
in the concrete. 

Then by providing new nuts the bolts can be used over 
again. 

Forms for beams and flat slabs, of any considerable span 
should always be built with a camber to the soffit or bottom, 



so that if there is any sag to the form it will not show a sag 
in the finished concrete. 

Heavy Centering. —Centering for large arches, bridge 
work, etc., must be erected with great care, so it will carry the 
weight of the wet concrete to be deposited upon it without 
much settling. 

As examples of centering the following cuts are given: Fig. 23 
shows a method of centering that has been used for a span of 
50 feet, and Fig. 24 shows the centering used by the Short 
Line R. R. in building concrete spans of 60 feet over the Penny- 
pack Creek, near Philadelphia. 

Fig. 25 shows the centering used in the 150-foot spans of 
the Connecticut Avenue Bridge, Washington, D. C. The work 
was carried upon each side of the arch uniformly, and the 
top was loaded temporarily, so the settlement of the center¬ 
ing would take place before the wet concrete was placed in the 
centre of the span. 

i The settlement in the centering of these arches at the centre 
run as high as inches. 



















FORMS AND CENTERING. 


Ill 



SIDE ELEVATION LONGITUDINAL SECTION 

• ♦ 

Fig. 23.—Method of Arch Centering. 

























































































































112 FORMS AND CENTERING. 




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tH 

d * 
o 
O 

d 

d 

d 

to 

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cw 

<D 

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►H 

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%"Tongued and Grooved 


FORMS AND CENTERING. 





113 


Fig. 25.—Centering used in Constructing Connecticut Avenue Bridge, Washington, D. G 



































































































114 


FORMS AND CENTERING. 


The centering for large and heavy arches should always be 
supported with posts of sufficient strength extending down to 
good bearing foundations, so there will be as little settlement 
as possible. 

Metal Forms. — For various concrete work, especially sewers, 
collapsible metal forms are now being used. 




Fig. 27.—“Blaw” Centering for Egg-shaped Sewer. 

Figs. 2G and 27 show the “Blaw” collapsible steel sewer 
centre. The concrete is put in place around the centre as 
shown, and as soon as hard enough the centering is collapsed, 
moved along and set up again, thus using the same centering 
repeatedly on the same piece of work. 





FORMS AND CENTERING. 


115 


Specifications for Forms.— The following specification 
for the construction of concrete forms is an excerpt from the 
“Specifications of the Piney Creek Concrete Bridge, Washing¬ 
ton, D. C.:” 

20. Forms. —All forms for all classes of concrete shall be 
closely laid and strongly braced. The contractor shall, before 
proceeding with the work, submit drawings of the forms to the 
engineer for his approval. All lagging shall be tongued and 
grooved, and the studding for all the work shall be dressed or 
sawed to an even thickness. All forms, except by the consent 
of the engineer, shall be held in place by means of bolts, so 
made that the outer 3 ins. of the bolts can be removed after 
the forms are taken down, and the remaining holes shall be 
filled with mortar (1-3). If f-in. lagging is used the studs 
shall not exceed 18 ins. on centres, and if 2 X 8-in. studs are 
used the wales shall not be less than 8X8 ins. These wales 
on a basis of 2 X 8-in. studs shall not be further apart than 
8 ft., nor shall the bolts which hold them and which have diam¬ 
eters of f in. be further apart than 8 ft. 

If lagging studs, wales or bolts are proposed by the contractor 
other than those described hereinbefore, they shall be such as 
to make a form of equal strength and stiffness to that described. 

Washers shall be used under all bolt heads, and nuts and 
before proceeding with the concrete work forms shall be brought 
true to line and grade and all bolts shall be taut. 

27. Centres for Arch. —Complete drawings of the centres 
with a description of the various materials to be used shall be 
submitted by the contractor to the engineer, free of cost to 
the District jf Columbia, and no work shall be done on the 
construction of the said centres until said drawings have been 
approved in writing by the engineer. 

28. General Description of Centres. —The centres shall 
be built for the full width of the bridge (25 ft. between faces of 
arch rings). The contractor will not be allowed to use centres 
having trussed spaces greater than 20 ft., but must carry posts 
down from the bow to suitable foundation. Bows in no case 
shall exceed 6 ft. 6 ins. on centres. They shall be stiffly sway- 
braced, both transversely and longitudinally. The founda¬ 
tions for the centres shall be of concrete of the same kind and 
according td the specifications hereinbefore specified for the 
permanent work. They shall be of such size as will not permit 
of a settlement greater than \ in. under the maximum loads 


116 


FORMS AND CENTERING. 

they are designed to carry. The tendency of the centres to 
rise at the crown as they are loaded at the haunches must be 
provided for in the design, or if not the centres must be tem¬ 
porarily loaded at the crown and the load so regulated as to 
prevent distortion of the arch as the work progresses. 

29. Materials. —Merchantable long-leaf pine lumber (in 
accordance with the specifications adopted by the Southern 
Lumber and Timber Association, Feb. 14, 1883) shall be used 
throughout, excepting that sills, corbels, wedges, and all other 
lumber subjected to side pressure shall be of white oak of the 
following specifications: White oak must be free from decay, 
splits, shakes, sawed true and out of wind, and square-edged, 
full-sized, free from large or loose knots or any other defects 
which would seriously impair its strength or durability. The 
wedges shall be of straight-grain oak only. All materials shall 
be subject to the approval of the engineer. Stresses in all 
material for the centres will be computed on the basis of one- 
fifth of the breaking strain of the material used, in accordance 
with the tables of Messrs. Kidwell and Moore for wooden beams 
and columns, 1899. In the design of the centre care shall be 
taken so that the centre will be stiff. The joists, caps and 
bows shall not have a deflection exceeding l in. under the full 
load of the arch, or the partial load of the arch, the concrete 
being figured as a liquid having a weight of 150 lbs. per cu. ft. 

30. Joints. —No dependence will be placed in nails, except 
for fastening the lagging, for securing the wedges, and for 
minor details, and then only upon the approval of the engineer. 
All joints shall be made with bolts and with straps or gussets 
of. steel or iron, if in the judgment of the engineer they are 
necessary in the design submitted. 

31. Lagging. —The lagging may be made in two thicknesses 
if the contractor so desires. The top layer to be tongued and 
grooved lumber not less than f in. thick, and the lower layer 
dressed to a matched top surface when in place. Lagging 
shall not have a deflection under the full load of the arch or j 
under the partial load exceeding } in. The concrete being 
figured for partial load as a liquid having a weight of 150 lbs. 
per cu. ft. The lagging shall be kept wet for three weeks 
after the keying of the arches. 

32. Striking Centres.— The crowns of the centres shall be 
raised above the intended height of the finished arches to allow • 
for settling when the centres are being loaded and when struck. 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


117 


The centres shall be struck when directed by the engineer, 
which direction will not be given until the masonry above 
them has been completed up to the level of the bottom of the 
coping. Wedges shall have a batter of (one inch in ten), and 
the pressure per square inch on the same shall not exceed 
300 lbs. per sq. in. The grain of same shall run with the batter 
and their contact faces shall be planed true and smooth for 
their entire width and length, and if so ordered by the engineer, 
they shall be lubricated to facilitate the striking of the centres 
without unnecessary jar. If the contractor wishes to use sand 
boxes to lower the centres, he shall submit details of the same 
for the approval of the engineer. The said boxes shall be 
water-proof and the sand used in the same shall be thoroughly 
washed to remove all silt and thoroughly dried before using. 
The centering shall not be paid for directly, but the payment 
of the same shall be included in the price for the arch concrete, 
in accordance with the schedule of prices hereinafter to be 
determined upon. 

Laying Out Work. —To Draw or Lay Out a Reverse 
Curve. —Draw the two lines that are to be connected by the 


G 



reverse curve, as AB and CD, Fig. 28. From the points on 
these lines that it is desired to connect with the reverse curve, 
draw a diagonal line as EF, and divide it into four equal parts 
by points 1, 2, and 3. 

From E draw a perpendicular line at right angles to CD, 
as EG, and from point 1, draw a line at right angles to EF 
until it strikes EG and establishes point 4. With this point 
as centre and 4 E as radius, strike the half of the curve from 
E to 2. Repeat the operation for the other half of the 







118 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


curve as shown. This curve is much used in laying out walks, 
etc. 

This curve can also be made by using two arcs of different 
radii, as shown by Fig. 29. Divide the diagonal EF into two 



Fia. 29.—Reverse Curve composed of Arcs of Different Radii. 


spaces, according to the desired curve as E2 and 2 F, Find 
the centre of each space, as point 1 and 3, and proceed as pre¬ 


viously explained. 


a l s 



Fia. 30.—Laying Out an Obtuse 
Round Corner. 


B 



Fia. 31.—Laying Out an Acute 
Round Corner. 


The reverse curve can be used only when the diagonal EB 
is at an angle of 45 degrees or less. 

The dotted line shows the other side of the walk, it being 
laid out by using the same centres as above, but radii to suit 
the width of the walk. 








LAYING OUT WORK. 


119 


To Lay Out the Curve for an Angle of Curb or Side¬ 
walk. —On the lines of the curb or walk, as AB and BC, Figs. 
30 and 31, measure back each way from B the desired distance, 
as points 1 and 2, from these points draw lines at right angles 
to AB and BC to intersect at 3. This intersection is the centre 
and 3 1 the radius to draw the curve as shown. 

To Lay Out a Curve Corner for Curb or Sidewalk when 
the Radius is Given. —Draw lines representing the line of 
the curb or walk, as AB and CD, Fig. 32. Then at a distance 
equal to the radius of the desired circle draw lines parallel 



to AB and CD, as EF and GH, intersecting at I, which is the 
centre, and IJ the radius to draw the curve. The point of 
intersection of the circle and straight line is found by drawing 
lines from I at right angles to EF and GH to strike the lines 
AB and CD, as IJ, J being the intersection of the circle and 
straight line. 

To Lay Out the Intersection of Two Walks of Dif¬ 
ferent Widths.- —Lay out the lines of the two walks as ABC 
and DEF, Fig. 33, and from the point on the narrow walk 
where the intersection of the straight and circle is desired, 
as G, draw GH parallel to BC. 

On GH make Gl equal to GB, I being the centre and IG 
the radius for the outer curve. Now ou GH make JK equal 





120 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


to JE and K is the centre and K J the radius for the inner curve 
as shown. 



Fig. 33. —Connecting Two Sidewalks of Different Widths at a Corner. 

To Find the Bevel of Skew-backs. —To find the bevel or 
slope of the skew-back for Jack arches, lay out the opening, 

as A BCD, Fig. 34. With AB re- 
^® presenting the width of the open- 
\ / ing, take AB as radius and A and 

B as centres, and draw the curves 
as shown, thus finding the inter¬ 
secting point E. Now draw EG 
and EF through points A and B, 
thus giving the bevels as shown: 

To Obtain Cuts or Angles on 
a Square.—F ig. 35 shows a dia- 

_ gram to obtain cuts or degrees on 

a square; for instance, if angle of 
•Bevel of Skew-back. 30° is desired, 7 and 12 on the 
square will give it. ' 

To Mitre a Circle and Straight Moulding. —Draw a 
full-size plan of the two mouldings, as shown in Fig. 36; draw 
abc, as shown, in the centre of the space between the two 
outside lines; connect d and b and b and e; bisect db and be 
and draw lines at right angles to them to meet at /; then fd is 
the radius of the mitre joint, 


e' 


c 

Fig. 34.- 














LAYING OUT WORK. 


121 


To Lay Out a Rake Moulding to Join the Moulding on 
the Square Set on a Plumb Facia. —Mark out the square 
moulding, as a, with be as the facia, Fig. 37; then draw lines 




Fig. 36.—Intersecting Mould¬ 
ings. 


\ 



Fig. 37.—Joining Level and 
Rake Moulding. 


at right angles to the facia, joining”all the breaks in the mould¬ 
ing, as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.; then draw lines from these points on 
the moulding with the rake of the roof, as 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, etc., 
and draw a line at right angles to these, as 1 7 at d; make 
line 1 1 at d the same length as 1 1 at a, and 2 2 at d same as 





















122 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


at a, etc.; then join these points as shown, thus giving the 
profile of the rake moulding. 

All plumb lines radiate from the centre of the earth, showing 
that if it were possible to make walls perfectly plumb they 
would not be parallel. 

All level lines are at right angles to an imaginary line from 
the centre of the level to the centre of the earth. If a line 
is drawn parallel to the earth's surface it has a curve of eight 
inches to the mile. 

To Lay Out the Joints in an Elliptic Arch.—D raw the 
arch abc, Fig. 38, and divide the curve into equal spaces, as 
1, 2, 3, etc., making as many spaces as joints required in the 
arch; draw lines from the foci dd to the points on the curve 
and bisect the angle thus formed, as shown. The lines bisect¬ 
ing this angle are the lines of the joints. Repeat the opera¬ 
tion for each joint. 



Fig. 38. —Joints in an Elliptical 
Arch. 


Fig. 39 —Laying out Octagon 

Bay. 


To Lay Off an Octagon Bay when the Length of One 
Side is Given.— First draw a line to represent the side of the 
house, as ab, Fig. 39; then with the trammel set the length of 
the side, place the foot at a and find point d; make the dis¬ 
tance from d to c five-twelfths of ad; then with the foot of 
the compasses at c, find point b ; with the foot at b , strike 
the arc cf; with the foot at d, find point 1; with the foot at 
a, strike the arc de; with the foot at c, find point 2; then 
connect ae, ef, and fb. 

To Lay Out a Hexagon Bay Window when the Length 
of One Side is Given.— Draw the line ac as side of the 
house, Fig. 40; then, with 'a as centre and the given side as 
radius, strike arc db; then, with b as centre, find point c; then, 
with c as eentre, strike arc eb; now with b as centre, strike 
semicircle adec; now connect ad, de, and ec. 






LAYING OUT WORK. 


123 


To find the side of an octagon bay when the length on the 
house is given: Divide the distance on the house by 2 *As, and 
the answer will be the length of the side. 



To find the distance on the house when the side is given: 
Multiply the side by 2 5 /i 2 , and the answer will be the diameter 
of the octagon. 

To Strike an Ogee for a Bracket. —Lay off the width 
and length of the bracket, as ac and ab, Fig. 41; then draw 
the line shown at the back of bracket an inch, or more if desired, 
from the edge of board; then draw the diagonal cd ; then divide 


Fig. 41. Fig. 42. 

Ogee Brackets. 

cd into two equal parts at 3 ; then, with 3 as centre and 3c as 
radius, strike hrc at 1; then, with c as centre and same radius, 
strike arc intersecting at 1; then, with 1 as centre, strike arc 
c3; then, with 3d as centre, strike arcs intersecting at 2; then, 
with 2 as centre, strike arc 3d. 

Another Way to Lay off a Bracket. —With fg as edge 
of board and fb as end or top of bracket, Fig. 42, draw the 
dotted line, as shown; then draw the diagonal ab and divide 
it into two equal parts at e; then, with eb as centres and eh as 
radius, strike arcs intersecting at c; then, with same radius 
and c as centre, strike arc be ; then, with same radius and ae as 
















124 


LAYING OUT WORK 


centres, strike arcs intersecting at d\ then with d as centre, 
strike arc ea. 

To Lay Out Angles. —Th following tables of angles is to 
be used in connection with a two-foot rule or a pair of com¬ 
passes to lay out any angle desired, as shown by Fig. 43. 



Example .—To lay out an angle of 15° take the two 12-inch 
arms of a two-foot rule and open them 3.13 inches, when the 
two arms will give the desired angle. 


ANGLES AND DISTANCES. 

Angles and Distances Corresponding to the Opening of the 
Two-foot Rule. 


Angle. 

Distance. 

Angle. 

Distance. 

Angle. 

Distance. 

Angle. 

Distance. 

Deg. 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Ins. 

1 

.2 

24 

4.99 

47 

9.57 

69 

13.59 

2 

.42 

25 

5.19 

48 

9.76 

70 

13.77 

3 

.63 

26 

5.4 

49 

9.95 

71 

13.94 

4 

.84 

27 

5.6 

50 

10.14 

72 

14.11 

5 

1.05 

28 

5.81 

51 

10.33 

73 

14.28 

6 

1.26 

29 

6.01 

52 

10.52 

74 

14.44 

7 

1.47 

30 

6.21 

53 

10.71 

75 

14.61 

8 

1.67 

31 

6.41 

54 

10.9 

76 

14.78 

9 

1.88 

32 

6.62 

55 

11.08 

77 

14.94 

10 

2.09 

33 

6.82 

56 

11.27 

78 

15.11 

11 

2.3 

34 

7.02 

57 

11.45 

79 

15.27 

12 

2.51 

35 

7.22 

58 

11.64 

80 

15.43 

13 

2.72 

36 

7.42 

59 

11.82 

81 

15.59 

14 

2.92 

37 

7.61 

60 

12 

82 

15.75 

15 

3.13 

38 

7.81 

61 

12.18 

83 

15.9 

16 

3.34 

39 

8.01 

62 

12.36 

• 84 

16.06 

17 

3.55 

40 

8.2 

63 

12.54 

85 

16.21 

18 

3.75 

41. 

8.4 

64 

12.72 

86 

16.37 

19 

3.96 

42 

8.6 

65 

12.9 

87 

16.52 

20 

4.17 

43 

8.8 

66 

13.07 

88 

16.67 

21 

4.37 

44 

8.99 

67 

13.25 

89 

16.82 

22 

4.58 

45 

9.18 

68 

13.42 

90 

16.97 

23 

4.78 

46 

9.38 





To Find Mitres on the Steel Square.— 12X12 equals 
square mitre; 7X4 equals triangle mitre; 13|X10 equals 
pentagon mitre; 4X7 equals hexagon mitre; 12^X6 equals 





















LAYING OUT WORK. 


125 


heptagon mitre; 7X17 equals octagon mitre; 22§X9 equals 
nonagon mitre; 9^X3 equals decagon mitre. 

To Lay Out Arches. —Lancet Gothic Arch.— A lancet 
Gothic arch is one whose radius is greater than its width, as 
shown in Fig. 44. 



Fig. 44..— Lancet Gothic Arch. 


To Draw the Gothic Elliptical Arch.— Divide the span 
ab into three equal parts at c and d, Fig. 45; with be as radius 


i 



Fig. 45 —Gothic Elliptical Arch. 

and a, c, d, b as centres, draw the arcs, as shown, finding points 
e and /; now, from e and / draw lines through c and d, as shown; 
with c and d as centres and ac as radius draw arcs ag and hb t 


d 



Fig. 46.—Lancet Gothic Arch. 

and with e and / as centres and eh as radius draw arcs gi and 
ih, completing the curve of the arch. 







126 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


To Draw the Lancet Gothic Arch when the Span and 
Rise are Given. —On the base line, Fig. 46, mark the span 
ab and from the centre draw the rise cd ; now connect ad and 
db, and from the centre of these lines draw a line at right angles 
to strike the base line, as gf and eh; now g is the centre and 
gb the radius to draw the arc db, and h the centre and same 
radius to draw the arc ad. 

Gothic Arch. —The most common Gothic arch is one whose 
radius is equal to its width, as shown in Fig. 47. 



Fig. 47.—Gothic Arch. 

All Gothic arches are easily struck from the centre, usually 
shown on the drawings. 

To Draw a Flat-pointed Arch to a Given Width and Rise 
—Draw the width, as AB, Fig. 48, and the height, as OC, while 
CD is a line tangent to the uppe ci cle; now draw C3 at right angles 
to DC, and from A draw the perpendicular AD; now find point /, 



making A1 equal to AD; now find point E, making CE equal 
to AD, and connect I and E; now bisect the line El, as shown, 






LAYING OUT WORK. 


127’ 


and draw a line to meet C3; now from 3 draw a line through 
point 1 as 3D, and I and 3 will be the centres to strike the 
arch; then transfer the points across to 2 and 4 for the centres 
for the other half. 

Drop Arch.—A drop arch is one whose radius is less than its 
width, as shown in Fig. 49. 

Another form of drop arch is shown in Fig. 50. 




Fig. 50.— Drop Arch. 


Three-centre Arch. —With ab as width of arch and e as 
centre, Fig. 51, take ea as radius and strike semicircle ab; 
then, with a as centre and ab as radius, strike arc be; then, 


0 



Fig. 51.—Three-centre Arch. 


9 



with b as centre and same radius, strike arc ad; then, with c 
as centre and cf as radius, strike arc gf; then, with d as centre 
and same radius, strike arc gh, thus completing the arch. 











128 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


Four-centre Arch. —To strike a four-centre arch divide the 
width into four equal spaces, as 1, 2, 3, Fig. 52; then, with 

1 as centre and la as radius, strike semicircle <x2; then, with 

3 as centre and same radius, strike semicircle 2b; then, with 

ab as radius and a as centre, strike arc be; then, with same 

radius and b as centre, strike arc ad; then, with c as centre 
and ce as radius, strike arc ge; then, with same radius and d 
as centre, strike arc fg, completing the arch. 

To Draw the Tudor or Gothic Arch. —Let ab be the span 
and cd the rise, Fig. 53; with ab as radius and c as centre 



draw an arc through the perpendicular at e, connect c and e, 
make ag and bh equal to cf; now r , with ab as radius and g and h 
as centres, find points 1 1 and 2 2 on the base line; drive a 
nail in each of these points to attach a string; fasten the string 
at 2 and carry it around the pencil at c and make fast at point 
1 on the opposite side; now draw the pencil from c to a, keeping 
the string tight, and it will describe the arch; then reverse the 
string for other side. 

At Point c on the Line ab to Draw Two Arcs of Circles 
Tangent to ab and the Two Parallels ah and be Forming 
an Arch. —Make ad, Fig. 54, equal to ac and be equal to be; 
draw cf at right angles to ab and dg at right angles to ah; with 
g as centre and radius gd draw the arc dc; draw ef at right angles 
to be; with / a centre and fc as radius draw the arc ce, com¬ 
pleting the arch. 

To Space the Kerfing of Mouldings, etc. —Strike a circle 
or the same dimensions as that which it is desired to spring 
the moulding around; take a piece of the moulding and make 
a kerf in it and place the moulding across the circle as shown 
by Fig. 55, with the kerf at the centre; now hold that part 











LAYING OUT WORK. 


129 


of the moulding marked A solid and bend the part marked B 
until the kerf or saw cut comes together. The distance the piece 




Fig. 54. — Arch of Two Arcs Fn. 55. —Kerfing of Moulding, 

of Circles. 


of moulding B has moved on the circle will be the distance 
apart to space the kerfs. 

To Lay Out an Arch or Curve Similar to an Ellipse, 
but whose Axes do not Stand at Right Angles. —Draw 
a parallelogram whose sides equal the axis, a s A, B, C, and 
D , Fig. 56; now draw the two centre lines EF and GH; 



divide AE and BF into any number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, 
etc.; then divide El and IF into the same number of parts 
and draw lines radiating from G to points 1, 2, 3, etc.; then 
draw lines radiating from H through points 6, 7, 8, etc., to 
strike the lines radiating from G, and through these intersec¬ 
tions draw the curve as shown. 

When any Three Points are Given, to Draw a Circle 
whose Circumference shall Strike Each of the Three 
Points. —With a, b, and c as the points, Fig. 57, join a and b 











130 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


and a and c together, and draw lines at right angles from the 
centre of ab and ac. bisecting at d, which is the centre of the 
cii*de, and da the radius. 


a 



Fiq. 57. —To Draw Circle through Three Points. 

J’o Find the Centre of a Circle.— Take any three points on 
circumference and join them, as a, b, c, Fig. 58; then 

a 


< 7 , 


Fia. 58.—Finding Centre of Circle. 

draw lines at right angles from the centre of ab and ac and 
the bisecting point d is the centre. 

To Find the Diameter or Radius of a Circle when the 
Chord and Rise of an Arc are Given. —Draw the chord as 



d 




\ 

/ 

/ 

i 

\ 


Fig. 59.—Diameter of Arc. 


c 



ab, then the rise de, Fig 59; then connect ad and db; then 
draw lines lc and 2c at right angles, and from the centre of 








LAYING OUT WORK. 


131 


ad and db t until they interesct at c, which is the centre and 
cd the radius. 

To Draw an Arc by Intersecting Lines when the 
Chord and Rise are Given. —Draw the chord as ab, Fig. 
60; then draw cd equal to twice the rise, divide ac and cb 
into the same number of equal spaces and draw the lines as 
shown. 



Fig. 61.— To Draw an Arc. 

To Draw an Arc by Bending a Lath or Strip. —Let ab 
be the span and cd the rise, Fig. 61, with cd as radius and 
d as centre, draw the quarter-circle ce; now divide ce and ed 
into the same number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, etc.; now 
divide db and da into as many equal parts as de; now con 
nect 1, 2, 3 on the quarter-circle and 1, 2, 3 on de, as 
shown; now 7 draw lines from the points on ad and db. at 
the same angle and equal in length to the ones on the quarter- 
circle, as 1 1, 2 2, etc.; drive nails in these points and bend 
the strips around. 

When the Span and Rise of an Arc are Given, to Draw 
the Curve. —Draw the span ab and rise c, Fig. 62; then, with 



Fig. 62.— To Draw Curve of Arc. 

a and b as centres and ab as radius, draw arcs ae and bf; now 
draw lines from a and b through c until they strike ae and bf, 
as al and 61; divide al on ae and 61 on bf into any number 
of equal spaces, as 1, 2, 3, etc.; ma.ke 5, 6, 7 equally distant 






132 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


and draw the lines as shown; draw the curve through the 
intersections as shown. 

When the Chord and Rise of an Arc are Given, to 
Draw the Arc. —Take two strips and joint the edges 


a 



JtxG. 63.—Frame to Strike Arc. 


straight and make a frame, as shown in Fig. 63; be is the 
chord and ad the rise of the arc. Drive a nail in the floor 
or drawing-board on the outside edge of the frame at b and 



another one at c; then place the pencil at the point of the 
frame, a, and slide the frame around, keeping it tight against 
the nails, when the pencil will describe the curve, as shown 
in Fig. 64. 

When the Chord and Rise of an Arc are Given, to Find 
the Radius. —Square one half the chord, divide this product 
by the rise and to this answer add the 
rise and divide by 2; the answer is 
the radius. In Fig. 65, one half the 
chord is 4, which squared equals 16, a 
which divided by the rise equals 5J, /&\* 

to which add the rise, equals 8J, which 
divided by 2 equals 4|=, the radius. 

Laying Out Mansard and Gambrel Roofs. —To propor¬ 
tion a mansard or gambrel roof, draw a half-circle to a scale, 
using the width of the building as the diameter,, then draw the 
two slopes of the roof so that they intersect on the circle, aa 
shown by Fig. 66. 











LAYING OUT WORK. 


133 


Laying Out Circle Heads in Circle Walls. —This can be 
done with lines and circles, but the quickest way for the w r ork- 



Fiq. 66.—Mansard or Gambrel Roof. 



Fio. 67.—Working Circle on Circle-heads. 


man is to cut out the head-piece to the desired circle for the 
frame; tihen make two templates equal to the circle of the 
D B wall and tack them on the drawing-board or 
floor, as shown by Fig. 67; now with a couple 
of straight-edges and pencil mark out the circle 
of the wall by sliding the strips over the tem¬ 
plates. 

To Lay Out Entasis of Columns, etc.— Draw 
length of column, as AB, Fig. 68, then AC, the 
radius of the column at the bottom, and DB, the 
radius of the column at the top; now describe the 
quarter-circle CE , and let fall the perpendicular DF. 
Divide the length of the column into spaces equal 
to the bottom radius, spacing from E, as G, H, I. 
and J; divide the arc CFinto the same number 
of equal spaces; now draw lines from the points 
on the centre line and at right angles to it, as E6, 
Fig 68— etc -> anc * ^ raw perpendicular lines from points 
Entasis if 1, 2, etc., on the arc to strike the lines from the 
Columns. ce n.tre line, as shown at 6, 7, 8, etc., and through 
these points draw the curve. Fig. ,68 is drawn with con¬ 
siderable swell, so that the lines can be seen more plainly. 















134 


LAYING OUT WORK. 



To Draw a Regular Polygon of any Number of Sides 
when the Length of One Side is Given. —Take the length ot 
the side for a base, as ab, Fig. 69; 
then with ab as radius and a as 
centre draw the semicircle, db; 
then divide the semicircle into as 
many equal parts as there are 
sides to the polygon, in this case 
7; then, as we have one side, ab, 
we skip the first division and 
connect a and 2; then from the 
centre of a2 and ab draw lines at 
. right angles until they meet at c r 
which is the centre of the poly¬ 
gon. Then, with c as centre and ca as radius, draw the circle; 
then draw lines from a through points 3, 4, 5, and 6, striking 
the circle at h, g, f, and e; now connect 2 h, hg, gf, fe, and eb. 

When the Two Axes are Given, to Draw a Curve Ap¬ 
proximating an Ellipse. —With cd as the major axis and 
ag the minor axis, Fig. 70, draw lines connecting ad and ac; 
then, with b as centre and ba as radius, draw the semicircle, 
finding points e and /, from which points draw lines at right 
angles to ad and ac, intersecting at g; then, with ga as radius 
and g as centre, strike arc 1 2; then, with i as centre and i2 
as radius, strike arc 2 d and repeat same for other side. 


Fio. 69.—To Draw Polygons. 



Fio. 70.—Curve Approximating an Ellipse. 


To Draw an Ellipse with a String. —Draw the long diam¬ 
eter, Fig. 71, as ab; then half the short diameter, as cd; then, 
with c as centre and ad as radius, describe arcs bisecting ab 
at 1 and 2, at which points drive a nail to fasten the string; 








LAYING OUT WORK. 


135 


then fasten the string at 1 and stretch to c, at which point place 
a pencil inside the string and carry the string to 2 and make 
fast; then keep the string tight and run the pencil along on the 
inside of the string and the mark will be the ellipse; 3 and 4 
show position of pencil and string on the curve. 


c 



Fiq. 71.—Drawing Ellipse with 
String. 



Fiq. 72.—Drawing Ellipse with 
Square. 


To Draw an Ellipse with the Square. —Take a strip of 
wood, as shown in Fig. 72, say £"X1", to use as a rule; then 
drive a nail through the stick about an inch from one end, as 1; 
then make the distance between 1 2 equal one-half the short 



diameter of the llipse and 2 3 equal to one-half the long diam¬ 
eter; drive another nail at 3, and at 2 make a hole for a pencil, 
place the pencil in the hole and slide the stick from a perpen- 

























136 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


dicular position to a horizontal one, keeping the nails against 
the inside of the square, and the pencil will describe an ellipse 
To Lay Out the Voussoirs of an Elliptical Arch. —There 
are two methods of laying out the voussoirs of an elliptical 
arch, as shown by Fig. 73. In method A the voussoirs de¬ 
crease in size towards the top of the arch, while in method B 
they are all about the same size. 

To locate the joints in method A, use C as centre and strike 
a half-circle as shown, and divide the half-circle into as many 
equal spaces as there are desired voussoirs in the arch, always 
making the number odd so as to include the keystone. The 
divisions in this case being indicated by 1, 2, 3, etc., draw 
lines from C radiating through these points to strike the curve 
of the ellipse, as H, /, J, etc. This is the location of each joint* 
In method B the curve of the ellipse is divided into as many 
equal spaces as there are desired voussoirs, counting the key 
as one. 

To lay out the joints in either method connect the point of the 
joint on the curve with the two foci A and B, which are found as 
shown by Fig. 71; bisect the angle formed by these two lines, 
as shown by the line D-E y which gives the joint. Repeat the 
operation for each joint. The length of all joints should be the 
same, as I-F, 2-G, etc. 



To Lay Out an Arch Lintel—T he rule is to use the width 
of the frame as radius. Example: abed, Fig. 74, represent 
the frame; now, with a as centre and ah as radius, draw the 











LAYING OUT WORK. 


137 


arc be; with b as centre and same radius draw arc ae, and witn 
the intersection e as centre and same radius draw the desired 
arc ab. 

To Find the Pattern of Veneers for Circle-splayed 
Window- or Door-jambs. —Draw a section of the frame, as a 
and by Fig. 75; then continue the lines Id a d 2e until they 
meet at c, ce or cd is the radius to lay out the veneer. 

Joints of a Gothic Arch. —The usual method of building a 
Gothic arch is shown by Fig. 76, the joints all radiating from 
the centres 1 and 2 used for striking the arch. This method 
requires the brick to be clipped at the top of the arch, as shown 
at A . If there is no weight on the top of an arch built in this 
way and there is much pressure on the sides there is a tendency 
to shove out the wedge-shaped bricks at the top and cause 
the arch to collapse. 


A 



A method to overcome this fault is shown by Fig. 77. The 
arch is built in the usual manner, using the centres A and B 
for the radii of the joints until the arch has been completed 
about three-fourths of the springing distance, or to A-^-C and 
B-D. Now take the intersection of A-C and B-D, as / for 
centre, and radiate the joints for the balance of the arch from 
this point as shown. An arch built in this way will usually 
require special-shaped brick for the top part. 

Dutch or French Arch. —Fig. 78 shows what is called a 
Dutch or French arch. It is built by clipping the brick as 




138 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


shown. It is very weak and not much used in modem con¬ 
struction. 



Names of Parts of a Column and Entablature. —Fig. 
79 shows the names of the various parts of an entablature. 



Fig. 78.—Dutch or French Arch. 


The entablature being divided into three subdivisions, the 
cornice, frieze and architrave. 

Fig. 80 shows the names of the various parts of a column. 
The -column being divided into fjur subdivisions, the base, 
shaft, neck, and capital 






























LAYING OUT WORK. 


133 


N 

<3 

c3 

a 

W 


Cornice 


Frieze 


Fillet v. 

Fillet 
Coron 
CtoIo 
Fillet 



Architrave < Upper Facia 


Fio. 79.—Names of Parts of an Entablature. 


&r 
o L 


x t- 
o | 
a> 

X I 


I 

J 

11 

s 


.—I 


a> 

m 

c3 




17 


i—Cymatium 
- Abacus 
Echinus 


Annulets or Eillets 
— Callarino or Neck 
—Astragal or Necking 


-Cincture 


s 


-Apophyge 


—Torus 

— Cavetto or Scotisu 


1 


-Torus 

—Plinth 


-Sub-Plinth 


Fia. 80.—Names of Parts of a Column. 












































140 


LAYING OUT WORK. 


Spacing of Arch, Brick or Stone. —Before starting an arch 
of either brick or stone, the joints of the arch should all be 




spaced out with a pair of dividers and marked on t e centre 
as shown at C, Fig. 82. A short piece of line should then 
be fastened at the centre, as at A, and each course of brick 
or stone in the arch should be set to this line, which should be 
stretched taut and held to the joint mark on the centre. 



Fia. 83.—Winding Stairs. 


By spacing the joints out in this manner there will be HO 
trouble in putting in the last course or key. 































LAYING OUT WORK. 


141 


To Lay Out Winding Stair-treads. —Make a drawing of 
the space to be taken up with the winders and draw an arc 
as AB, Fig. 83; divide this arc into as many equal spaces as 
steps desired, as 12 3, draw lines radiating from the centre of 
the newel through these points, which give the size and shape 
of the different steps. 

To Square Across a Tapering Stick. —Place the square 
across the stick at the desired point, as shown by the dotted 
lines in Fig. 84, A being the point at which it is desired to 
square the stick. At the inside of the tongue of the square 
make a mark on the stick at a point one-half the distance 



Fig. 84.—Squar ng Tapering Timber. 


across the stick, as at C. In this case 4 being one-half the 
distance. Now reverse the square and put it on the opposite 
side of the stick, bringing 4 on the inside edge of the tongue 
to the point at C. Now draw a line from A to B which will 
be at right angles to the center line of the stick or square across. 



Fig. 85.— To Lay Out the Roof-hole for a Chimney. 

To Lay Out the Roof Hole for a Chimney when Its 
Diagonal is Parallel to the Rafters.— Draw the square 
A-B-C-D and the diagonals A-C and D-B, Fig. 85, represent- 











142 


SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


ing the chimney. Now draw F-E representing the slope of 
the roof, and erect the perpendiculars A-E , B-G, and C-K; 
on the middle perpendicular line make H-l and H-J each 
equal to E-G. Connect A-I, I-C, C-J and J-A, which gives 
the shape of the hole to cut in the roof. 


SHORT CUTS, ETC.* 



Dasket 


Ilitc-b 


Fig. 86. 


To Sling a Column. — Take two ordinary slings of equal 
length, weave them together, as shown by Fig. 86, and place 
them over the top of the column as 
shown by Fig. 87. 

To Sling a Pole or Timber on 
End. —Fig. 88 shows how to hitch to 
a pole or timber to be hoisted on end; 
a hitch of this kind will not slip. 

To Sling a Barrel— Fig. 89, cuts 1, 2, 3, shows how to 
sling a barrel for hoisting mortar, etc., using an ordinary sling. 

Another Method to Sling a. Bar¬ 
rel or Can. —Fig. 90 shows a ready 
way of slinging a can, to improvise a 
paint-pot, to dip for water, etc. Pass 
the end of the cord under the bottom of 
the can and bring the two parts over 
it, and make with them an overhand 
knot; open the knot, as shown in Fig. 
91 and draw the two parts down until 
they come round the upper edge of the 
can; haul taut and knot them together 
again over the can, as shown in Fig. 90. 

To Sling a Plank Edgewise,— 
The method of slinging a plank edge¬ 
wise by a rope so that it will stay is shown in Fig. 92. A 



Fig, 87. 


clove-hit h is made around the end of the plank, then one 
of the parts is twisted tround the plank until the ends lead 
as shown. 

To Shorten a Rope without Cutting.— To shorten a 
piece of rope without cutting it try the sheep-shank shown id 
Fig. 93. The rope is brought back on itself, making two or 


* Several cuts in this part have been used by permission of the editor of 

Practical Carpenter. 












SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


143 


more bights, and a half-hitch is taken around e^ch bight. 
This knot will not slip, and will nearly fall apart of its own 





accord if the strain is released, so that when there is a liability 
of this happening it is well to pass a piece of wood through 
the loop A at each end and pull the rope tight on them. 



Fig. 91. —Slinging Can. 


How to Tie a Jury-mast Knot.— This knot is also 
known as a masthead knot and a bottle-hitch, and is used at 




























































































144 


SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


the top of a temporary derrick in place of a mast iron to 
fasten the guys to 

Take a piece of stout cord and hold it between the thumb 

and forefinger of each hand, with 
a space of about 6 inches between 
the hands. Then twist the cord 
right-handed with the thumb and 
forefinger of the right hand only. 
This will throw up a bight like 
Fig. 94, with the part A under B. 
Grasp the loop thus formed between 
the thumb and forefinger of the left 
hand at the point where the two 
parts cross. Then move the thumb 
and forefinger of the right hand 
along the cord about 6 inches, and throw up another bight, 
laying it on top of the first one. You then have Fig. 95. Hold 
these two bights with the left thumb and forefinger, measure off 
another 6 inches, and throw the last bight. Place it on top 




Fig. 93.—Sheep-shank. 

of the last one made and you have Fig. 96 Take the part E 
in the last bight at Fig. 96, and, while holding the other parts 
in place, pass it under B, over C, and under A. This makes 
Fig. 97. Then take B, Fig. 97, and pass it under D and over F. 



Fig. 94. Fig. 95. Fig. 96. Fig. 97. 

Jury-mast Knot. 


The result is Fig. 98. Then, while holding E in the left and 
B in the right hand, take hold of X with the teeth and pull 
it. The result will be Fig. 99. In practice, the part O in Fig. 
99 goes over the reduced part of the mast- or derrick-head. 
The forestay is made fast to X ; the stays to B and B; Y and Z 
form the backstays. Any strain on the stays tightens up O., 





















SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


145 


By pulling Y and Z in opposite directions the knot comes out. 
Every workman should know how to tie this knot. 

Stop-knot. —Fig. 100 shows how to fasten a line to another 
on which there is a strain, such as a guy-line, etc.; this is often 
necessary when it is desired to tighten a guy-line. Take a smaller 



Fig. 98.—Jury-mast Knot. 


Fig. 99. 


size rope,as A, and with the left handhold it against the larger 
rope, and make three round turns toward the right of the larger 
rope. Bring the end of the smaller rope marked B back, and 
take three half-hitches to the left. Bring the end of the small 
rope marked A through the loop at C, and attach set of blocks 
to take the strain. 

Another method of taking hold of a rope with a strain on it 
is shown by Fig. 101. Take a sling made of a smaller rope and 



wrap it around by alternate cross-turns and attach blocks as 
shown. 

To Sling a Plank for Staging.—Make a marlinespike 
hitch as shown by Fig. 102. Place the end of the plank in the 
bight occupied by the marlinespike; draw it taut, as shown by 
Fig. 103. with the double part of the bight on the under side of 
the plank. 






146 


SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


Fastening for Ledger-boards. —Fig. 104 shows a method 
of fastening ledger-boards to posts or uprights by means of a 
wrought-iron clamp or stirrup. Two holes are bored through 
the upright, the stirrup inserted, and the ledger-board bolted 
fast as shown. B is the putlog laid in place. This method is 
quicker and stronger than nai s, and does not destroy any lumber. 



Fig. 101. Fig. 103.—Slinging Staging. Fig. 104.—Ledger-board 

Fastening. 


Temperatures. —The following table affords a somewhat 
rough method of estimating high temperature: 



Centi¬ 

grade, 

Degrees 

Fahren¬ 

heit, 

Degrees 

Just glowing in the dark. 

525 

977 

Dark red. 

700 

1252 

Cherry-red. .. 

908 

1666 

Bright cherry-red. 

1000 

1832 

Orange... 

1150 

1300 

2102 

2372 

2732 

White. 

Dazzling white. 

1500 






























SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


147 


Apparatus for Crushing Clinkers. — When screening 
cinders which are to be used as an aggregate for fire-proof 
concrete, all the large clinkers should be crushed to the desired 
size and used, as this is the material most desired. g 

A slat platform can be built by bolting together flat bars 
of iron, about 1"X2", separating the bars about 1 inch with 
spreaders, as shown by Fig. 105. 

A curb or box rim is then put around this slat platform as 
shown, and the platform set upon a couple of trestles about 
2 feet from the ground. 

The large clinkers are thrown in and crushed with a large 
flat hammer, or a flat iron concrete rammer. As the clinkers 



are crushed to 1 inch or less, they fall through the slats to the 
ground. 

Nailing-blocks in Concrete Work. —When doing concrete 
work, where any wood trim, base, or any other woodwork 
is to be used in finishing, provision must be made for nailing 
or fastening the trim, etc., in place. 

Wood nailing-blocks made dovetail shape, as shown by 
Fig. 106, can be tacked on the forms where desired and the 
concrete tamped around them, and which, when hard, will 
hold the block solid in place. 

The wood trim, etc., can then be nailed to the blocks, the 
dovetail shape of the blocks preventing them from pulling 
loose. 







148 


SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


The blocks should be given a coat of paint or preservative 
to keep them from decaying. 



Fig. 106.—Nailing-block in Concrete. 


Furring on Concrete Walls. —Concrete walls are often 
furred for plastering so as to overcome any dampness that 

might penetrate the wall. 

When it is intended to fur a 
concrete wall, provision must be 
made as the wall is built for 
fastening on the furring. Bolts 
put in at intervals as the wall 
is built, as shown by Fig. 107, 
is one of the best methods for 
fastening on the furring. Ar\ 
ordinary carriage bolt is built 
in the wall letting the nut end 
project through the wood forms 
enough to take in the furring 
and bolt it fast as shown. 

The bolts must be put in 
vertical rows whatever distance 
apart it is desired for the furring 
strips, then the wood or metal 
Fig. 107. Bolt ^Fastening in Con- uth is fastened to the furring 

after it is bolted in place. 

Another method when metal lath is to be used is to build in 
the “Rutty” furring and nailing plug as shown by Fig. 108. 
This plug is built in the wall, as shown by Fig. 109, and the 
metal lath is secured direct to the plug with nails or staples. 
















Reinforced Concrete 


SHORTS CUTS, ETC. 


149 


Fia. 108.—Rutty Non-furring Nailing Plug. 




Fid. 109.—Rutty Non-furring Plug in Use. 



AS USED IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 
Fio. 110.—"Rutty” Nailing Plug. 


































150 


SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


Fig. 110 shows how the plugs are placed in position as the 
walls are built, placing them in the joints of the plank forms. 



Fig. 111.—Rutty Steel Nailing Plug. 


The ordinary “ Rutty ’’ plug, as shown by Fig. Ill, can also 
be used, the wood furring strips being nailed to the plugs. 

“ Breaking ” Expanded Metal or Wire Reinforcing. 
—When beams, girders, etc., are encased in concrete a rein¬ 
forcement of expanded metal or wire is usually put over tho 



* % Fig. 112.—Reinforcement on Soffit of Beams. 

lower flanges of the beam or girder, as shown by Fig. 112, so 
as to hold and reinforce the concrete forming the soffit of the 
beam. 

The metal reinforcement should be bent in the form of a 
stirrup and put up over the flanges of the beam and wired 
fast. 

Figs. 113 and 114 show a “break’' made for bending such 
reinforcement. 

Take a piece of timber about 4"X5" for a bed plate as, D, 
and on top fasten a 2"X6" or 3"X6", as B, by hinging one 
end and fastening the other with a hasp and staple, leaving 
just space enough between the two pieces of timber to slip the 
metal under, as shown by Fig. 114. 











SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


151 


This piece B is to clamp and hold the metal. Take another 
piece of 3"X6", as C, Fig. 113, and hinge it at each end to D, 


B 3x6 C 3x6 



D 4x5 


Fig. 113. —Section of “Break” for Bending Metal Lath. 

as shown, setting the hinges so that it will clamp the metal 
tight when bent down to the position shown by the dotted 



Fig. 114. —“Break” for Bending Metal Lath. 


lines at A , Fig. 113. This “breaks” or bends the metal at 
right angles, or less as desired. If wanted to bend more than 





























152 


SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


at right angles, the piece D must be worked to the desired 
angle, as shown by the dotted line. 

A strip of flat iron should be put on the corner of the bed 
plate Z), where the bending is done, as much work will soon 
wear the wood round if not protected. The “ break ’’ must be 
made long enough to take in the metal of desired lengths. 
To form the stirrup of metal one side is bent, the lever B is 
then raised and the metal taken out and reversed and the 
other side bent where desired. 

A Device for Measuring Water Admitted to a Con¬ 
crete Mixer. —Fig. 115 shows an ingenious and simple water- 
gauging device for supplying the desired percentage of water 
to a batch of concrete in a mixer. An ordinary oil barrel is 
connected with a watter-supply tank by a 2-inch pipe provided 
with a valve. Through the bottom of the barrel passes a 2£- 
inch pipe, also provided with a valve, which is connected with 
the other valve by a rod, as shown. Telescoping into the 
2^-inch pipe is a 2-inch plunger pipe, which can be raised or 
lowered by means of a lever. A stuffing box in the bottom 
of the barrel prevents leakage around the 2-inch plunger pipe. 
A f-in. “vent pipe” extends vertically from the head of the 
barrel up to the level of the water in the supply tank. Starting 
with the barrel full of water, the operator raises or lowers the 
2-inch plunger pipe till the rod attached to it marks the desired 
percentage of water; then he pulls a rope attached to the 
lever that operates the two valves, thus opening the lower 
valve and closing the upper one simultaneously. The water 
in’the barrel then discharges into the mixer until it reaches 
the level of the open top of the 2-inch plunger pipe, when of 
course no further discharge takes place. The operator then 
releases the rope operating the valves, and a counterweight 
(not shown in the drawing) pulls them back to their original 
position, closing the lower valve and opening the upper valve, 
which permits the barrel to be filled again from the supply 
tank. 

This ingenious device is described by Mr. Clarence Cole, 
Assistant Engineer, in the report of the Chief of Engineers, 
U. S. A. for 1904. 

To Prevent Boom of Derrick from Sagging. —When 
working a derrick with a long boom which is liable to sag in 
the centre or to buckle with a heavy weight, thread up the 
boom-line, as shown by the dotted lines at A, in Fig. 116, and 


SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


153 


make the end of the line fast to the centre of the boom; this 
will take strain enough on the boom at this point to prevent 
all sagging. 



To Use the Square to Plumb with. —To plumb with a 
square set the blade of the square against the object to be 
plumbed and use- the level on the tongue; when the tongue 
shows level the blade of the square will be plumb. 















































































SHORT CUTS, ETC. 




* 

Fio. 117.—Levelling with a Square. 




























SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


155 


To Use the Square to Level with. — To level with a 
square and plumb-bob place the square on the straight-edge, 
as shown by Fig. 117, and drop the plumb-bob, holding the 
line at the top of the blade of the square, as at A, Fig. 117. 
With the eye sight the bob-line with the square, and they will 
show in line when the straight-edge is level. 

Care of a Rope. —When coiling a rope always coil round 
to the right; this has a tendency to take out all twists and 
kinks, while if it is coiled to the left the coiling will twist and 
kink the rope. When rigging up a derrick or using ropes 
(except new ones) for any purpose, carefully examine them 
before putting them into use to ascertain their condition. Often 
a rope will look all right on the outside, while the interior of 
it may be rotten. Open up the twist- of the rope and examine 
the different strands carefully in several places in the length 
of the rope. 

Do not put a wet rope away in storage until it has been 
dried and aired well. A little precaution will lengthen the 
life of a rope considerable. 

When opening a coil of new rope (especially wire rope) take 
the coil and run it along the ground like a wheel, letting the 
rope stretch out behind. This will prevent twists and kinks. 
After a hemp or manila rope has had some use it will be flexible 
enough to run directly off the coil, but a wire rope must always 
be run off, as explained above. 

Several months’ use of a rope usually decreases its strength 
about 40 per cent. 

Setting Cement Blocks. —When setting cement blocks use 
a stone-cutter’s mallet instead of a hammer and block of wood; 
it is much handier and will save time. 

Tool for Rubbing Stone. —A handy tool for rubbing stone 
is made by taking a piece of cast iron about 10 X 12 inches and 
1 inch thick. Lay the plate off into squares about l|Xl| 
inches, and at each interesection drill a ^-inch hole. Around 
the plate put a rim extending up about 1 inch above the top 
of the plate, and put a handle on top of the plate to lift it by 
and to use in sliding the plate back and forth over the stone 
to be rubbed. Fill the plate to the top of the rim with sand 
and wet with water, and rub same as rubbing with a piece of 
stone. The sand will go down through the holes in the plate 
and cut very fast. 

Mirror for Setting Capstone or Cornice. —When setting 


156 


SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


the top or cap stone of heavy stone cornice the mason will 
have much trouble to look under the stone to note the position 
of it and see how the joints are. 

A contrivance to overcome this difficulty is made by screw¬ 
ing a handle to a looking-glass, as shown by Fig. 118. The 
mirror can then be held below the stone and the reflection will 



show the soffit and joints beneath it, which cannot be seen 
from above. 

The Steel Square. —The standard steel square has a blade 
24 inches long and 2 inches wide, and a tongue from 14 to 18 
inches long and 1£ inches wide. The blade is at right angles 
to the tongue. 

In the centre of the tongue will be found two parallel lines 
divided into spaces, Fig. 119; this is the octagon scale. The 
spaces will be found numbered 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60. To 
draw an octagon, say 12 inches square, draw a square 12 inches 
each way and draw a perpendicular and horizontal line through 
the centre.- To find the length of the octagon side place the 
point of the compasses on any one of the main divisions of 
the scale and the other point of the compasses on the twelfth 
subdivision; then step this length off on each side of the centre 
lines on the side of the square, which will give the points from 
which to draw the octagon lines; the diameter of the octagon 
must equal in inches the number of spaces taken from the 
square. 

On the opposite side of the tongue will be found the brace- 
rule, Fig. 120. At the end of the tongue will be found the 
figures If 33.95; the §|- indicates the rise and run of a brace, 








SHORT CUTS, ETC. 157 


and 33.95 is the length. The rest of the figures are used in 
the same way. 



On one side of the blade will be found nine lines running 
parallel with the length of the blade and divided at every inch 
by cross-lines, Fig. 121; this is the board measure. Under 12 



























































158 


SHORT CUTS, ETC. 


on the outer edge of the blade will be found the various lengths 
of boards, as 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, etc. For example, we will take 
a board 10 inches wide and 8 feet long; to find the contents 
we look under 12 and find 8 between the first and second lines; 
we then follow this space along until we come to the cross- 
line under 10, the width of the board, and here we find 6 8, 
or 6 feet 8 inches, the contents of the board. 

At the angle of the blade and tongue will be found the diag¬ 
onal scale, by which an inch can be divided into one hundred 
equal parts and any number of these parts can be taken from 
the scale. For instance, if we want to find of an inch 
place one point of the compasses on the diagonal line 2 3 at 
the intersection of the seventh line from 2, and the other point 
on line 1 2, which will give of an inch. To find r 6 <$j of an 
inch place the point of the compasses on line 3 2, at the in¬ 
tersection of the third lkn from 3, and the other point on this 
third line at the intersection of line 5 5, which gives °f an 
inch. The line 2 6 is 1 inch in length and divided into ten 
equal parts, then each part contains of an inch, and at 
the diagonal will give any number from to The scale 
is easily understood. 

Plastering on Concrete.— Concrete when put in place in 

foims and tamped or puddled into place as it should be will 
usually show a smooth surface when the forms are removed; 
this surface being covered with a thin film of cement which 
has been brought to the surface through the tamping and 
puddling and the suction of the forms. 

It will be found difficult to make plaster adhere to such a 
surface especially if a cinder or clinker concrete, and any 
concrete surface on which plastering is to be applied should be 
gone over and roughened by picking or with a pneumatic tool, 
to give a rough surface on which the plaster will key and 
adhere. 

This roughening can be done very easily with a pneumatic 
tool if done immediately after the removal of the forms. 



PART IV. 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION, CURBS, COPING, 
ETC., FINISHING THE EXPOSED SUR¬ 
FACE OF CONCRETE, EFFECT OF VAR¬ 
IOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE, VARIOUS 
USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE, 
TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT 
WORK, EXCAVATION TABLES. 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 

Excavation. —Where frost has to be contended with the 
excavation for a sidewalk should be about 18 inches deep, 
and graded so that any water gathering in the foundation 
will be carried away. If necessary, drain tile should be put 
in at intervals to carry off this water. 

In localities where frost and freezing does not occur the 
excavation need only be to the depth of the concrete of the 
walk, as an artificial foundation will not be necessary. 

Foundation. — After the excavation is completed, the 
bottom should be tamped or rolled solid and then filled in 
with cinders, broken stone, or gravel to the line of the under¬ 
side of the concrete of walk. This foundation should be tamped 
or rolled solid to avoid any settling after the walk is in place. 
If cinders or gravel is used it should be wet several times while 
being tamped or rolled, as the water will assist in compacting 
the mass. 

When convenient, it is a good idea to put the foundation in 
place several weeks before laying the walk. Then any rain 
or walking over the foundation will help to pack it solid. 

159 



160 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


Forms. —After the foundation is in place and tamped, 
take 2"X4" or 2"X6" scantling, depending on the thickness 
of the walk, and put them in place to form the outside edges 
of the concrete. The top of the scantling should be set to the 
finished grade of the walk, as shown by Fig. 122. These scant¬ 
ling or stringers can be fastened by stakes driven on the out¬ 
side and nailed to the stringer to hold it at the correct height. 
These stringers should be surfaced on the side and edge, so they 
will present a smooth surface to the concrete, and surfacing 
the edge straightens them. 

Concrete Base. —After the forms are in place the concrete 
base, whifch should be a mixture of 1 part cement, 3 parts 



Fig. 122. —Sidewalk Construction. 


sand, and 5 parts of broken stone or clean gravel, should be 
deposited in place. It should be mixed medium wet and struck 
off level with the top of the forms, after which it should be 
tamped thoroughly, which will cause it to compact and settle 
enough below the top of the form to give space for the thick¬ 
ness of the top or finishing coat, as shown in Fig. 122. 

Mixing the Concrete.—Mix the cement and sand dry on 
a tight platform with shovels or hoes, until no streaks of the 
cement are visible; then add water in quantities to produce 
a mortar of the desired consistency, and thoroughly mix until 
a stiff plastic paste is produced. Uniform mixing prevents 
unequal contraction and expansion, thus preventing the con¬ 
crete from cracking. Spread the mortar upon the platform, 
then add the proper quantity of broken stone or gravel which 







SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


161 


has been thoroughly wet. This mass shall then be turned 
over with shovels or hoes not less than three times, or until 
every piece of stone is completely covered with mortar. The 
above should be sprinkled during mixing process. 

Spreading Concrete. —This concrete should be immediately 
and evenly spread upon the cinder or broken stone foundation 
(which has been thoroughly dampened) in a layer of such 
depth that, after having been thoroughly rammed with con¬ 
crete tampers, it shall be of the thickness required for the base. 

When the walk is not over 6 feet in width and troweling can 
be done from both sides the walk can be laid in a continuous 



stretch, but with a wide w;alk it should be laid in sections, as 
shown by Fig. 123. 

Cross strips should be put in and every alternate section 
put in place and finished as shown. After these sections are 
hard enough to work on, the division strips can be taken out 
and the vacant sections filled in. This method is to be recom¬ 
mended, as it insures the separation of the blocks at the cross 
joints. 

Cutting into Blocks. —When the base is put in continuous 
it must be cut at the line of the jointing of the blocks, which 
should be laid out along the stringer on each side of the walk. 

This cut should extend at least two-thirds through the con- 































162 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


Crete and the crevice be immediately filled with dry sand to 
prevent adhesion between the blocks. Some workmen use a 
strip of steel about three-sixteenths of an inch in thickness to 
separate the blocks, filling the crevice with sand after the 
strip of steel is withdrawn. 

Others prefer to put a strip of tar-paper between the blocks, 
and others put a strip of corrugated strawboard between the 
sections of the walk, the corrugated board being elastic takes 
care of all expansion. 

Any method that cuts and separates the blocks can be used, 
but the blocks should all be cut and separated from each other, 
so that if there is any movement from frost, expansion, or 
other cause it will not crack the blocks across the face, as the 
block will be able to move at the joint. 

Top or Finishing Coat. —Before the base concrete has set 
the top or finishing coat, which should consist of equal parts 
of cement and granite chips or coarse sharp sand, should be 
spread in place and tamped to remove all voids and air bubbles. 
This top coat ^should be wet just enough so that after tamping 
a little the mortar will strike off easily with the straight¬ 
edge. 

AfteT being struck off, it should be gone over with the float 
and then left stand until all the water disappears and the 
mortar becomes stiff enough to trowel smooth. The top should 
be given just enough troweling to bring it to a smooth, even 
surface. 

Too much troweling is a detriment, as it brings all the cement 
to the top. In troweling, work the trowel in all directions 
so as not to cause any hollows. After the joints are laid out 
the tendency is to trowel from the centre of the block to the 
joints. If this is done the mortar is worked from the centre 
out to the edge of the block, and a hollow in the centre of the 
block is the result. 

When troweling do not dust with dry cement to take up 
the water, but wait a little longer when the water will dis¬ 
appear, or if dusting is necessary and has to be resorted to, 
use equal parts of dry sand and cement. The dry cement 
if used by itself causes a mottled appearance on the face of 
the walk, caused by the dry cement forming little balls of 
neat cement mortar when coming in contact with the water. 
These balls will trowel out, showing spots in the finished 
walk. 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


163 


The top coat should be cut through with the trowel imme¬ 
diately over the joints in the base, and finished with a jointing 
tool. 

When the walk is to be gone over with a toothed roller 
to prevent it from becoming slippery the roller should be used 
just after the final troweling, the roller being run from one 
side of the walk to the other regardless of the jointing, using 
pressure enough to give the desired impression of the teeth 
of the roller. After using the roller go over all the joints 
with the jointing tool, which will give a plain margin around 
each block. 

Another method to prevent the top becoming smooth and 
slippery is to float the top coat, and then with a wooden 
plate stipple it, giving it a rough surface. Or another effect 
can be obtained by laying a piece of leather or rubber on the 
floated mortar, pressing the leather or rubber down on to the 
mortar. Then take the sheet of leather at one corner, peel 
it off the cement, leaving a roughened surface. 

Protection of Walk. —As soon as the top coat is hard 
enough to permit, the walk should be covered with a layer 
of sand about 1 inch or more in thickness, and this sand 
kept wet for four or five days. This will prevent the 
sun from drying the cement too fast and will cause the 
cement to become much harder than if left exposed to the 
weather. 

A cement walk should be kept covered and not used for 
about ten days after completion. 

Thickness of Walks. —Cement walks in ordinary places, 
such as residence districts, are usually laid 4 inches thick, in¬ 
cluding the top coat, but in business districts, or where the 
walk is of unusual width and much travel on it, the walk should 
be made thicker. 

The following will give an idea of the thickness required for 
different walks. 

Walks up to 5 feet in width should have a base of about 
31 inches and a top coat of f inch. 

A 5-foot walk should have a base of 3| inches and a top 
coat of f inch. 

A 6-foot walk should have a base of inches and a top 
coat of 1 inch. 

A 7-foot walk, or over, should have a base of 5 inches and 
a top coat of 1 inch. 


164 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


Size of Blocks to Cut Walks. —The size of blocks into 
which the walk should be cut will be governed by the width 
of the walk and the thickness of the concrete. 

The walk should be laid out in blocks to look symmetrical 
and at the same time have the blocks small enough that there 
will be no danger of them cracking across, the face. . 

A walk 3 feet wide and any thickness should be cut into blocks 
about 3 feet square. 

A walk 4 feet wide and 4 inches thick should be cut into 
blocks 2X2 feet. 

A walk 4 feet wide and 5 or 6 inches thick may be cut into 
blocks 4 feet square. 

A walk 5 feet wide and 4 inches thick should be cut into 
blocks 2' 6"X 2' 6". 

A walk 6 feet wide and 4 inches thick should be cut into 
blocks 3 feet square. 

All 4-inch work should be cut into blocks 3 feet square or less. 

A walk 4 feet wide and 5 or 6 inches thick should be cut 
into blocks 4 feet square. 

A walk 5 feet wide and 5 or 6 inches thick should be cut 
into blocks 2' 6"X 2' 6". 

A walk 6 feet wide and 5 or 6 inches thick should be cut 
into blocks 3 feet square. 

All 5-inch work should be cut into blocks not over 4 feet square. 

All 6-inch work should be cut into blocks not over 4' 6" 
square. 

Coloring of Walks. —Walks are very often colored by 
adding some coloring matter to the top coat. This is done 
to overcome the glare of the sun shining on the light-colored 
walk when the cement is left its natural color. 

The light reflected in this manner is very dazzling to the 
eyes. For the use of different colors see p. 78. 

Notes on Sidewalk Work. —Use only the best of Portland 
cement. 

Use coarse, sharp sand for the top coat, or if obtainable, 
use granite chips. 

Do not use Puzzolan cement, as it will not stand the changes 
of temperature, and will disintegrate. 

Do not use one kind of cement for the base and another for 
the top coat; their setting and action may be different. 

Do not try to lay sidewalks in freezing weather, a bad walk 
is likely to be the result. 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


165 


Always put on the top coat before the base concrete has 
set. 

Do not use natural cement for the base and Portland for the 
top; they will not adhere together. 

Do not use sand containing dirt or clay for the top coat. 

Blisters or pock-marks are caused by air bubbles which 
have not been worked out of the top coat. Tamp the top 
coat enough to remove all air spaces and bubbles. 

When walk is laid in hot weather cover immediately after 
finishing with a tarpaulin held up from the walk by stringers; 
then as soon as walk is hard enough, cover with sand as de¬ 
scribed. 

Mix only enough concrete or top coat as can be put in place 
within an hour, and do not retemper or mix concrete that 
has started to set. 

For mixing use clean water; iron in the water will give 
rust stains to the finished walk. 

Lay a walk you can guarantee and stamp your name on it. 

Do not use limestone aggregate for sidewalk work. Lime¬ 
stone expands on receiving moisture and contracts in drying, 
and this action will cause hair cracks. 

To test the stone for expansion fill a lamp chimney with fine 
screenings; pack it solid, and then pour on water. If the 
crushed stone expands and breaks the lamp chimney it is 
unfit for use. 

Large Cracks in Walks are Caused by: 

Poor foundations, due to poor filling, poor tamping, or mix¬ 
ing of concrete. 

Expansion and contraction when the blocks have been 
made too large or have not been properly separated. 

Poor drainage, so that water will stand under walk and 
freeze in cold weather. 

Roots of trees growing under the walk. 

Shocks or too heavy strain before walk has had time to 
harden properly. 

Hair Cracks or Small Surface Checks are Caused by: 

Too much troweling, bringing neat cement to the surface. 

Sprinkling neat cement on surface so that it may be finished 
sooner. 

Exposing to hot sun or wind, causing it to dry out before 
cement has reached final set. 

Using too much water in finish or top dressing. 


166 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


Sprinkling with water after it has started to set, but before 
it has reached its final set. 

Sprinkling with cool water while hot sun is shining on a 
walk that is only one or two days old. 

Non-uniform Color and Streaks are Caused by: 

Poor mixing of concrete and finish. 

Using variable proportions of water. 

Uneven troweling. 

Troweling work after it has commenced to set. 

Dust or clay in sand or water. 

Dirty water dripping from tarpaulins or paper used for 
covering. 

Freezing. 

Unsound or Weak Work, Scaling, Swelling and Crumbling are 
Caused by: 

Freezing of work done in cold weather. 

Improper mixing and working of concrete and finish. 

Using mixtures that have been allowed to stand too long, 
the cement in them having set. 

Disturbing the work after the cement has set. 

Cement being drowned by being submerged in water before 
it has reached its final set after being mixed and tamped in 
comparatively dry. 

Putting finish on after concrete has set. 

Getting dirt on concrete before finish is put on, and not giving 
walk enough water to enable it to harden properly. 

Basement or Cellar Floor Work. —Cement floor work is 
done similar to sidewalk work, except that the concrete need not 
be quite so rich. For such work a base of 1 part cement, 3 
parts sand, and 6 parts of stone or gravel, with a top coat of 1 
part cement and 2 of sand will make a good floor. 

Days’ Work on Floors or Walks. —One finisher and four 
helpers will lay: 

About 200 square feet of 8-inch walk in one day. 

V 225 “ “ “ 6-inch “ “ “ “ 

“ 250 “ “ “ 4-inch “ “ “ “ 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR SIDEWALK WORK 

The following specifications are used by the city of Seattle, 
Wash., for sidewalks, etc.: 

Concrete shall be mixed as follows: Upon a tight platform 
of evenly laid plank of sufficient size, a correct proportion oi 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


167 


gravel shall be evenly spread, and in no case more than 8 ins. 
deep. All material for concrete shall be accurately measured 
in suitable sized boxes. No counting by shovels or other 




F. CENTER JOINTER 



G. SQUARE CORNER TROWEL8 



H. DRIVEWAY IMPRESSION FRAME 



!• ROUND CORNER TROWEL8 ROUND EDGE SMOOTHING TROWEL 



N. LINE ROLLER 


0. DOT ROLLER 


K BLOCK CUTTER 


Fig. 124.—Tools Used in Laying Sidewalks, etc. 


approximation will be allowed. To determine the proper 
proportions, a barrel of cement weighing not less than 400 lbs. 
gross shall be taken as measuring 3£ cu. ft. In a separate box 
the correct proportion of sand and cement shall be mixed dry 

























































































































































168 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


until the whole mass is one even color. The gravel shall then 
be wetted and the mixture of dry sand and cement shall be 
evenly spread over it. Commencing at the corners, the men 
shall, with shovels, turn the mass over away from the centre, 
and coming back, turn it to the centre. In addition to the 
thorough wetting of the stone, if, in the judgment of the city 
engineer, it will be necessary, sufficient water shall be added 
to the mass by a rosehead sprinkler to enable the material to 
become thoroughly incorporated, and the process of mixing 
shall be continued until the surface of each stone is well 
covered with mortar. The concrete shall be spread upon the 
foundation as soon as mixed in a layer of such depth that after 
having been thoroughly compacted with iron-shod rammers, 
7 ins. square and weighing not less than 40 lbs., it shall not 
be in any place less than 3^ ins. thick, and the upper surface 
shall be parallel with and not less than \ in. below the pro¬ 
posed surface of the completed pavement. To insure this 
the concrete shall be struck with a gauge which shall be shod 
with a steel plate not less than £ in. in thickness. Special care 
shall be taken to thoroughly tamp the concrete in all cases. It 
shall be tamped until a’thin layer of water appears on the surface. 

At such points as may be directed by the city engineer, 
and which shall be approximately 120 ft. apart, all concrete 
sidewalks shall have a joint \ in. in width, extending entirely 
through the concrete base and wearing surface. As soon as 
the concrete is thoroughly set, this joint shall be carefully 
cleaned and immediately poured full, even with the surface, 
with hot grade “D” asphalt, or with pavers’ pitch No. 6. 

When the bottom course is completed, and before the con¬ 
crete has begun to set, the finishing or wearing course shall 
be laid down. The correct proportions of sand and cement 
shall be thoroughly mixed dry until of one uniform color and 
sufficient water added to make a mortar of proper consistency. 
The mortar shall be colored by mixing lampblack therewith, 
at the rate of about 2 lbs. of lampblack to 1 bbl. of cement. 
This quantity may be varied to produce the shade desired. 
The lampblack shall be thoroughly mixed with the cement 
mortar in such manner as to produce a uniform and even shade 
satisfactory to the city engineer. Special care must be taken 
to thoroughly trowel down the mortar in order to secure a 
perfect bond with the concrete base. It shall then be care- 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


169 


fully smoothed to a uniform surface, which must not be dis¬ 
turbed after the first setting takes place. 

Y-shaped grooves \ inch in depth shall then be made with 
a suitable tool, dividing the pavement into blocks 2 feet square. 
The thickness of the completed wearing surface must not be less 
than | in. at any point. On steep grades the cement coating 
shall be roughened in such manner as the city engineer may direct. 

When the sidewalk is completed it shall be covered with 
such material as may be directed and kept moist by sprinkling 
for at least one week. The sprinkling shall be done as often 
as may be necessary to keep the sidewalk constantly moist. 

The contractor will be required to stamp his name in letters 1 
in. high and { in. deep twice in each block on each side of street. 

All concrete shall be laid in short sections and immediately 
covered with the wearing surface. Retempering of concrete 
cr mortar will not be permitted. All mortar or concrete that 
has begun to set before ramming is completed shall be removed 
from the work. Any concrete or mortar that fails to show 
proper bond, or that fails to set after, in the opinion of the 
city engineer, it has been allowed sufficient time, shall be 
taken up and replaced by the contractor at his own expense 
with new concrete or mortar of proper quality. 

Granolithic Sidewalk .—The following extract is taken from 
specifications prepared and used by the supervising architect of 
the U. S. Treasury Department: 

The sidewalk shall be of 4 ins. of concrete with 1-in. finish¬ 
ing coat laid on 8 ins. of broken stone or cinders, the stone or 
cinders to be well rolled or tamped before the concrete is laid. 
The concrete shall be composed of one volume of Portland 
cement, two volumes of sand, and three volumes of clean hard 
stone broken to pass through a 1-in.-mesh sieve. Lay off in 
rectangular slabs about 4 ft. square, the joints to extend at least 
half way through the concrete, and before the concrete com¬ 
mences to set spread the finish coat, composed of equal volumes 
of Portland cement and finely crushed granite, mixed with only 
enough water to dampen the mass, as dusting with dry cement in 
finishing will not be permitted. 

Trowel to smooth even surface cut through on lines coinciding 
with the joints in the concrete and 'finish the joints with a 
V-shaped tool. Leave l$-in. margin around each slab. 

In all work under the supervising architect samples of ma- 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT-SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS CITIES. 
(Compiled by Sanford E. Thompson.) 


170 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 




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* Twelve-inch cinders required where the soil is not clean sand. t Specified for each contract. 










































SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


171 


terials to be used must be submitted and approved before the 
work is commenced. 

Weight of- Concrete: 

Cinder concrete. about 105 lbs. per cubic foot 

Crushed-stone concrete. . . “ 140 “ “ “ “ 

Gravel concrete. “ 150 “ tl “ “ 

Slag concrete. . “ 135 “ “ “ u 

Quantity of Water for Mixing Concrete.— The amount of 
water to be used for mixing concrete can be determined only by 
experiment. The amount of water required depending on the 
dryness of the materials used and the wetness of the mixture 
required. 

With materials under ordinary conditions the amount of water 
required will be about ten per cent by weight for a wet mixture 
of concrete. 


CONTRACT AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT 
SIDEWALKS, CLEVELAND, OHIO. 

Contract for . 

This Agreement , Made this.day of. 

one thousand nine hundred and.by and between the 

City of Cleveland, by the Board of Public Service, in that 
behalf, party of the first part, duly authorized by ordinance 
of the Council of said City, authorizing and directing the ex¬ 
penditure, passed. , .. 

and. 

of. 

Contractor, party of the second part. 

Witnesseth: That the said party of the second part has 
agreed, and by these presents does agree, with the said party 
of the first part, for the consideration hereinafter mentioned 
and contained, and under the penalty expressed in a bond 
bearing even date with these presents, and hereunto annexed, 

to furnish at.own proper cost and expense all the 

necessary materials and labor in the. 

in conformity to the following specifications and plans of said 
work, now on file in the office of the Board of Public Service, 
and to the acceptance of said party of the first part. 















172 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


SPECIFICATIONS. 

Portland Cement Concrete Sidewalks to .be Laid in 
the City of Cleveland, Ohio, Specification for 190 » 

Portland cement concrete sidewalks to be laid as ordered 
in front of or along the sides of such lots or parcels of land, 
and upon such streets as the Board of Public Service may 
direct, during the period of one (1) year from date of approval 
of the contract. 

Grading .—The contractor shall grade the surface of the 
ground on the lines of the walks to the grade given by the 
engineer, without any additional charge except in the case 
where the original surface of the ground would average for the 
whole frontage of the lot more than six (6) inches above or 
below the surface of the walks when laid, and in such cases, 
where the average is more than six (6) inches the contractor 
shall be paid for the amount in excess of the said average of 
six (6) inches for the whole frontage of the lot, such price as 
the bids for extra excavation or embankment in his proposal. 

Removal of Objectionable Matter .—If any material, vege¬ 
table, animal, or other objectionable matter be found in the 
line of the walk to be laid, it shall be removed, and the space 
filled with good earth, sand, gravel, cinders, or other suitable 
material, and carefully rammed. Stumps, rubbish or other 
matter which, in the opinion of the inspector, is deemed un¬ 
suitable for filling material, will not be permitted in this work. 

Concrete on Clay .—When concrete walks are laid on clay 
ground, an extra excavation of six (6) inches must be made, 
and the space filled with cinders, broken stone, slag or clean 
gravel. This to act as a foundation for the four and one-half 
inches of concrete in the sidewalk proper. 

Bed .—Upon the sub-grade prepared as above there will be 
laid a bed of Portland cement concrete three (3) inches in 
thickness, after being rolled and rammed, to be made as follows: 

The lower portion or bed of the walk to be one (1) measure 
Portland cement, three (3) measures clean sharp sand, thor¬ 
oughly mixed dry and made into a mortar with as little water 
as practicable, and six (6) measures crushed blast furnace 
slag or broken stone, free from dust and dirt, then thoroughly 
mixed with the mortar by being turned over at least three (3) 
times. Slag or stone must be of such size as will pass through 
a one and one-half (11) inch ring. 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


173 


Coarse gravel may be used instead of broken stone or slag, 
and if coarse gravel is used, mixture to be one (1) part Port¬ 
land cement and six (6) parts of gravel. The foregoing ad¬ 
mixture to be placed in position and rammed thoroughly until 
the mortar flushes to the surface. 

Wearing Surface .—The top finish or wearing surface to be one 
and one-half inches thick, and placed on top of the concrete as 
prepared above within 40 minutes after completion of bed or 
bottom. It shall be composed of one (1) measure of Portland 
cement and two (2) measures clean sharp sand, thoroughly 
mixed dry to the satisfaction of the Inspector, and then enough 
water added to make a paste of proper consistency; tamped 
same as the lower portion of the walk, and then floated or troweled 
to such finish as may be required by the Inspector. 

All concrete shall be laid in short sections. No block to be 
larger than six feet by five feet. 

All joints must be cut through the full thickness of walk, 
and the space made by the cutting tool | inch in width must 
be immediately filled with clean dry sand and well rammed. 

Any lack of compaction between the wearing surface and 
the bottom shall be deemed sufficient cause for requiring entire 
removal and the substitution of new and satisfactory work. 

All concrete shall be mixed upon a tight wooden platform, 
evenly laid, and of sufficient size. All material shall be accu¬ 
rately measured in suitable sized boxes. No counting by 
shovels or other approximation will be permitted. To deter¬ 
mine the proper proportions it is understood that one bag of 
cement weighing one hundred pounds shall be equal to one 
cubic foot of gravel. 

Retempering of concrete will not be permitted. All concrete 
that has begun to set before ramming is completed shall be 
removed from the work. Any concrete that fails to show 
proper bond, or that fails to set after, in the opinion of the 
Engineer or Inspector, it has been allowed sufficient time, 
shall be taken up and replaced by the contractor at his own 
expense with concrete of the proper consistency. 

All work while in progress must be protected by the con¬ 
tractor against injury from sun, rain, frost, or any other cause, 
and must not be opened for use until properly set. The In¬ 
spector may reject work where the wearing surface has become 
damaged or disfigured through lack of proper protection by 
the contractor. 


174 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


Portland cement shall have a specific gravity of not less than 
three (3) and it shall leave a residue, by weight, of not more 
than eight (8) per cent on a No. 100 sieve, or twenty-five (25) 
per cent on a No. 200 sieve; said sieves having 100 and 200 
meshes each way to the lineal inch, and the diameter of the 
wire composing same being approximately 0.0045 and 0.0020 
inch respectively. It shall not contain more than four (4) 
per cent magnesia nor more than 1.75 per cent sulphuric anhy¬ 
dride, and it shall in other particulars conform to such chemical 
requirements as the Board of Public Service may deem neces¬ 
sary in order that the best grades only of Portland cement 
may be obtained. 

Pats of neat cement one-half inch thick, with thin edges, 
immersed in water after hard set, shall show no signs of check¬ 
ing or disintegrating, and when submitted to a hot test, con¬ 
sisting of three hours in steam and three hours in boiling water, 
must give satisfactory evidence of soundness without cracking 
or blowing. Similar pats after standing in air shall exhibit 
no blotches, discoloration, or evidence of cracking, blowing, 
or disintegrating. 

It shall require at least thirty minutes to develop initial set, 
and hard set shall not be taken in less than three hours, the 
test being determined by Gilmore wires. Briquettes of neat 
Portland cement with one square inch breaking section shall 
develop at least the following breaking strengths: 


Neat Briquettes. Age Strength. 

24 hours (in water after hard set). 150 lbs. 

7 days (one day in air, 6 days in water). 500 lbs. 


28 days (one day in air, 27 days in water) .... 600 lbs. 

Sand briquettes with one square inch breaking section, com¬ 
posed of cement one part and standard crushed quartz sand 
passing No. 20 sieve and resting on No. 30 sieve) three parts, 
by weight, shall develop at least the following breaking strengths: 


Age. Strength. 

7 days (one day in air, 6 days in water).150 lbs. 


28 days (one day in air, 27 days in water) .... 225 lbs. 

Cement which shows abnormally high strength on the one 
day or seven day tests may be regarded as unreliable, and may 





SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


175 


be rejected therefor, the above, or any other test may be re¬ 
quired as the Board of Public Service may direct. 

Sand .—All sand shall be coarse, sharp, silicious sand, con¬ 
taining not more than five per cent, by weight, of loam or 
clay. It shall be free from organic matter or other impurities. 
It shall be stored on the work upon suitable wooden platforms, 
and shall in every way meet the approval of the Board of 
Public Service and shall pass a No. 10 standard testing sieve 
having ten meshes per lineal inch, and not less than thirty 
per cent shall be retained upon a No. 30 standard testing sieve 
having 30 meshes per lineal inch. 

Gravel— Gravel must be screened and washed, if necessary, 
but must be of such size that none of it shall pass a standard 
wire sieve having 10 meshes per lineal inch, and that the largest 
pebble shall not exceed one and one-half inches in greatest 
diagonal dimension may, upon the approval of the Board of 
Public Service, be used in lieu of or mixed in such proportions 
as it may determine with the broken stone. The pebbles com¬ 
posing the mass of gravel shall be so graded in size that the 
voids in the loose heap as determined by the Board of Public 
Service shall not exceed forty (40) per cent of the total volume. 
Should sand passing the said No. 10 standard testing sieve be 
contained in said gravel, the amount of sand used in preparing 
the mortar for the concrete shall be proportionately descreased. 
Crushed furnace slag conforming to the specifications for size 
and of a quality which will develop under test a crushing and 
transverse strength equal to that of the stone herein specified, 
may be substituted for broken stone in all concrete, except where 
additional specifications or notes on plans specifically call for 
broken stone or gravel. AH stone, gravel or slag for concrete 
shall be stored upon suitable wooden platforms and must in 
every way meet the approval of the Board of Public Service. 

Driveways. 

Concrete .—All driveways used as such, if constructed of 
cement, must be at least six inches thick, four inches bed or 
bottom, and two inches top or wearing surface. Deep corru¬ 
gations shall be cut in the wearing surface with proper tools, 
this to be done under the direction of the Inspector. In every 
other way concrete driveways shall be constructed m the 
manner as provided for concrete sidewalks. 


176 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


Period of Guaranty .—The contractor must guarantee the 
sidewalks laid under this contract to remain in perfect condi- 
tion for a period of two (2) years after the expiration of said 
contract, and the city will retain an amount equal to ten (10)' 
per cent of the amount of the contract as a guarantee fund, 
that the contractor will lay, repair, or relay, any defective 
walks on receipt of notice from the Board, or its agents, so to 
do, and in the event of his failure to make such repairs, lay 
or relay such walks, said Board, without further notice, may 
proceed to make such repairs, lay or relay such walk, or cause 
the same to be done, whether by contract, or otherwise, at their 
option, and shall pay the cost of such repairs, laying or relaying 
from said guarantee fund. 

At the expiration of said term of guaranty, said amount 
retained, plus interest, etc., less any expenses which the city 
may have incurred necessarily in connection therewith, shall be 
returned to said contractor as full payment of any balance 
due on said contract and improvement as herein provided. 

SIDEWALK SPECIFICATIONS RECOMMENDED BY THE 
N. A. C. U. 

The following specifications for sidewalks were prepared by 
the Committee on Streets and Sidewalks, of the National Asso¬ 
ciation of Cement Users, and were presented at their convention 
at Chicago, Ill., 1907: 

Foundations .—The ground base should be made as solid 
and permanent as possible. Where excavations or fills are 
made, all wood or other materials which will decompose should 
be removed and replaced with earth or other filling like the 
rest of the foundation. 

Fills of clay or other material which will settle after heavy 
rains or deep freezing should be tamped solid in layers not 
more than 6" in thickness, so as to insure a solid embankment 
which will remain firm after the walk is laid. 

Embankments should not be less than wider than the 
walk which is to be built. When porous material, such as 
coal ashes, granulated slag or gravel is used under drains, 
agricultural tile should be laid to the curb drains or gutters, 
so as to prevent water accumulating and freezing under the 
walk and breaking the blocks. 

The position of shade trees should not be less than 4' from 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION. 


177 


the walk. Carolina poplar, elm or other shade trees whose 
roots run near the surface of the ground should not be less 
than 10' from the walk. 

Line and grades should be given by a civil engineer; the 
stakes to be not over 25' apart and far enough from the walk 
line so that an inspector may see that the walk is laid to line 
and grade. 

The mould strips should be firmly blocked under the ends 
and the centre of the strips and carefully straight-edged, care 
being taken that the strips are parallel with the engineer’s 
line and the height of the grade stakes. The walks should 
be laid with a drop of \ of an inch to the foot towards the curb 
gutter. 

Specifications for Thickness. 

The thickness of the walk should be determined by the 
location, the amount of travel and danger of being broken 
by heavy bodies falling on it, or frost. 

Business front walks should not be less than 4" thick, and 
may be 6" thick with profit. The top coat of business walks 
should not b6 less than 1-J" thick. 

In residence districts, the top coat should not be less than 
1" wearing thickness and the thickness for different widths 
of walks should be as follows: 

6' wide, the minimum at the centres should be 4£" thick; 
at the edges, 4" thick. 

5' wide, the minimum at the centres should be 4" thick; 
at the edges, 3^" thick. 

4y wide, the minimum at the centres should be 3f" thick; 
at the edges, 3\" thick. 

4' wide, the minimum at the centres should be 3^" thick; 
at the edges, 3" thick. 

All other widths less than the above, the minimum at the 
centres should be 3^" thick; at the edges, 3" thick. 

Sizes of blocks may be determined by the width and thick¬ 
ness of the walk. Business front walks should contain not 
over: 

12 sq. ft. when the walk is 4" thick. 

16 sq. ft. when the walk is 5" thick. 

20 sq. ft. when the walk is 5^" thick. 

25 sq. ft. when the walk is 6" thick. 

Residence districts where the walks are: 



178 


SIDEWALK CONSTRUCTION 


6' wide, 3" thick at the centre, the blocks may be 6' long. 

6' wide, 4\" thick at the centre, the blocks may be 5' long. 

5' wide, 4\" thick at the centre, the blocks may be 5' long. 

5' wide, 4" thick at the centre, the blocks may be 5' long. 

4\’ wide, 4" thick at the centre, the blocks may be 4£' long. 

4' wide, 4" thick at the centre, the blocks may be 4' long. 

4' wide, 3i" thick at the centre, the blocks may be 4' long. 

Other widths less than the above, 4" thick at the centre, 

the blocks may be 4' long. 

Other widths, 3%" thick at the centre, the blocks may be 
3Y long. 

Specifications for Concrete. 

Bottom-coat Gravel .—The largest size to be not over 1" and 
all under to be considered sand. Proportions to be one 
part high grade Portland cement to four parts, clean, hard 
gravel and sand enough to fill the voids, which makes the 
proportions, as most gravel will measure after being filled 
with sand, one part cement to five of the whole aggregate 
sand and gravel. 

Bottom Coat Crushed Stone .—The size of broken* stone should 
not be larger than and vary in size to and free from 
fine screenings and dust or soft stone. Proportions to be 
one part high grade Portland cement, two parts clean and 
6harp sand, and four parts broken stone, or what is termed 
by consulting engineers and concrete experts one part of cement 
to four of stone, and sand enough to fill the voids. 

Mixing of both gravel and broken stone should be done 
by placing stone in the mixing box or on the platform first, 
then spread the sand evenly over the stone and in like manner 
the cement over the sand. Then cut through from top to 
bottom in thin slices, which will insure an even mix. Then 
turn with hoe or shovel twice before adding water, which 
should be done with a sprinkler and hoed over as sprinkled. 
The batch should be turned at least once after the water is 
applied. The amount of water used in the bottom coat should 
be only enough to make it, when firmly tamped, solid and 
not “quaky.” 

Top Coat. —Proportions, three parts high grade Portland 
cement and five parts clean, sharp sand mixed dry and screened 
through a No. 4 sieve. In the top coat the amount of water 
used should be just enough so that the surface of the walk 


CURBS AND COPING. 


179 


can be tamped, struck off, floated and finished within 20 minutes 
after it is spread on the bottom coat and when finished it should 
be solid and not “quaky.” An edger of not less than 1” 
radius should be used on the outer edges of the walk. 

Separation of the blocks should be done with a spud not 
over 6” wide and thick, and to insure complete separation 
the groove should be cut through into the ground base. Fill 
the groove with dry sand before the top coat is spread and 
the top coat should be cut through to the sand after floating 
and troweling and a jointer run in the groove; then again 
draw a trowel through the groove, so as to insure a complete 
separation of the blocks. 

The protection of newly finished walks from storms can 
be accomplished by covering with roofing paper or canvas. 
Canvas should never be laid on the walk, but stretched over on 
a slant, so as to run the water off. 

Grading after the walks are ready for use should be on the 
curb side of the walk 1£" lower than the walk and not less 
than to the foot fall towards the curb or gutters. On the 
property side of the walk the ground should be graded back 
at least 2' and not lower than the walk, which will insure the 
frost throwing the walk alike on both sides. 

Curbs, Coping, etc. —When putting down a cement curb 
the most important point is to get the form built straight 
and firm. This form can be built as shown by Fig. 125, using 
2X4 inch stuff for the,stakes. 

The inside row of stakes, as at A, should be driven in line 
and the top anchored by a stay-board nailed to stake C , which 
should be driven deep enough to be very firm and solid. The 
stakes A can then be fastened in a perfect line and the planks 
'for the inside form of the curb put in place, keeping the top 
of the planks to the exact grade for the top of the finished 
curb. 

The row of stakes B can then be driven, leaving space enough 
for the curb and planks. The planks for the outside of the 
form can then be nailed in place and the stakes brought into 
line and fastened to the opposite stakes, as shown. The planks 
for the outside of the form should be surfaced, so they will 
leave a smooth surface to the concrete. 

After the forms have been built the concrete can be mixed 
and put in place, tamping it solid in layers of about 6 inches, 
filling the form to the top before the bottom layers have set; 


180 


CURBS AND COPING. 


otherwise the tamping of the top layers would crack the bottom 
concrete that had already set. As the concrete is put in place, 
a mixture of sand and cement should be kept plastered against 
the face form. 

The curb should be cut into lengths of about 6 feet, which 
can be done by putting in a partition in the form and putting 
in 6 feet of curb at a time and inserting a piece of tar paper 
in the joint. As soon as one section is filled and tamped solid, 
the partition can be taken out, leaving the paper in place 
and the next section filled in as before; or the curb can be 
filled in and then cut into lengths by driving a piece of sheet 
iron of about \ inch in thickness into the concrete, thus cutting 
it where desired. This sheet of iron should then be withdrawn 



carefully and the cut made by it filled with dry sand. This 
will prevent adhesion between the two sections of curb. 

The outside corner of the curb should be tamped to a bevel,' 
as shown in Fig. 125, so the corner can be rounded off, as shown 
in Fig. 126. The top of the concrete should be finished with 
a mortar of sand and cement. 

As soon as the concrete has set sufficiently, which will be 
in three or four hours, according to the quickness of the cement 
used, the outside form can be taken down and the face and 
top of the curb floated and finished, rounding the corner as 
shown. In case the working of the cement with the trowel 
brings too much water to the surface, sprinkle on a dry mixture 
of sand and cement to take up the surplus water. At each 
joint mark it off neatly with a jointing tool. If the curb is 
























CURBS AND COPING. 


181 


to be rounded on both corners it can be shaped and rounded 
with a tool, as shown at c, Fig. 124, page 167. 

Steelbound Curb. —This is a concrete curb haying a steel 
bar imbedded in the concrete at the outer corner of the curb, 
as shown by Fig. 127. This bar is a protection to the curb 
and prevents the chipping off of the corner. After the forms 
have been built, as previously described, fill in with concrete 
to a height to receive the '‘corner bar,” lay the bar on top of 
the frame, and with a properly shaped tool cut the concrete not 
less than 6 inches deep, at the exact point where the joint comes 
at the end of the bar. Into this cut sprinkle a little sand, 
and ram the concrete again, which will solidify the concrete 
and close the joint, except for the small sand cushion; use 



Fig. 127.—Steel-bound Curb. 


care not to get sand on top of the concrete or it will cause 
a separation where you do not want it. 

On top of the concrete now place the corner bar on which 
has been placed the iron brackets which hold it in place, wedg¬ 
ing these brackets between the forms to hold them into position. 
A 10-foot bar should have one bracket in the middle, and one 
at each end, the end brackets also serving to hold the end of 
the next bar. 

Set the bar level with the top of the form, which will be the 
finished top of the curb. 

Before placing the bar into position, take a trowel and spread 
some fine top mixture of sand and cement along the top of 
the concrete in place, extending up the front plank to within 
about an inch of the top and beveled down to the concrete 
at an angle of about 45 degrees. Into this cushion of mortar 





























182 FINISHING THE SURFACE OF CONCRETE. 


lay the bar, making sure that there is a surplus of mortar, 
which should squeeze out from under the bar, thus insuring 
a solid bed. 

Next fill in behind the bar and on top of the concrete with 
a little more concrete to within about an inch of the top of 
the form; tamp carefully, and then put on the top mixture, 
work it well into place around the bar and trowel to a finish, 
as soon as stiff enough. At the end of each bar cut the con¬ 
crete as deep as possible, without disturbing the bracket, and 
finish with a jointing tool. 

One cement finisher and 3 helpers should put down about 
60 feet of 8-inch curb in a day. 

Finishing the Exposed Surfaces of Monolithic Con¬ 
crete.—In monolithic concrete work the first step toward a 
satisfactory finished surface is to build the forms strong and 
rigid, so there will be no bulges or depressions in the finished 
face of the concrete. 

The lining of the form should be 2-inch plank surfaced to a 



Fig. 128.—Beveled-edged Planks for Forms. 


thickness, and the edges slightly beveled, as shown by Fig. 128, 
so the plank will fit tight together at the joints. 

When depositing the concrete, especial care should be taken 
to see that there is no voids near the surface or face of the 
wall, but the mortar part of the concrete should be forced out 
against the forms. 

A good way to work the mortar out to the forms is to take 
a spade and work the blade up and down in the concrete next 
the form; this works out the voids and causes a smooth sur¬ 
face when the form is removed. 

Another method is to have several sheet-metal forms made, 
as shown by Fig. 129. These forms are placed in position as 
shown, and the concrete filled in against them, and at the 
same time the space between the metal and wood form is filled 
with a face mixture of mortar. This face mixture can be 
mixed or colored, as desired. 

After the concrete is filled to the top of the metal the metal 
form is withdrawn, and the concrete tamped solid. Then 





FINISHING THE SURFACE OF CONCRETE. 183 


the metal forms are again put in place and another layer of 
concrete deposited. 

If there is no pressure on the concrete the wood forms can 
be removed in about 24 hours and the face of the concrete 



Fro. 129.—Method of Facing Concrete. 


should be left comparatively smooth, and if gone over at once 
with a float and water, it should give a surface similar to sand 
finish in plastering. If the concrete is too hard for a wooden 



Fig. 130.—Forms for V Rustication. 



Section. 


float to smooth off, use a brick of emery or a piece of sand¬ 
stone. 

After the surface has been floated off, it can be given a coat 
of cement grout mixed to the consistency of buttermilk, and 
which can be applied with a brush. 























































184 FINISHING THE SURFACE OF CONCRETE. 


If it is desired to lay out the surface of the concrete in blocks 
with V-shaped rustications to imitate courses of stonework, 
these V moulds must be nailed on the inside of the forms before 
the concrete is placed, as shown by Fig. 130. The forms should 
be removed while the concrete is green, and the faces of the 
blocks floated as described, or a good finish can be obtained 
by going over the face lightly with a stone pick or tooth ax, 
giving the concrete the appearance of “picked” or “pointed” 
stonework. 

Another method of facing concrete, which has been used 
quite extensively of late, is to use a desired aggregate for the 



Fia. 131.—Surface of Broken Stone Concrete after being Washed. 


concrete, and after it is in place about 24 hours, take down 
the form and go over the face of the concrete with a wire brush 
and water, scrubbing the cement mortar from the face and 
crevices of the aggregate until the pieces of the aggregate 
show in relief as desired. In this way different effects can be 
obtained, according to the aggregate used and the depth to 
which the mortar is scrubbed out. 

Fig. 131 shows a concrete with an aggregate of broken stone, 
and Fig. 132 shows a concrete with an aggregate of screened 
gravel, both finished as described above. 

The same result has also been obtained by washing the 
surface with an acid wash, which removes the cement and 





FINISHING THE SURFACE OF CONCRETE. 185 


exposes the particles of sand and aggregate. As soon as the 
desired effect has been obtained by the acid wash, the work 
is then washed thoroughly with an alkaline solution to remove 
the acid. It is then washed with clean water. The acid 
wash can be used on any concrete or cement work. 

The wash is usually made of 2 parts water to 1 part hydro¬ 
chloric acid, but the strength of the wash must be governed 
to suit the work it is used on. 


Where the work is not extensive and an attractive finish 
is desired, pebbles of a certain size, say about 2 inches in diam¬ 
eter, can be placed against the form by hand as the concrete 



Fig. 132.—Surface of Gravel Concrete after being Washed. 


is put in place and the concrete tamped solid, filling the voids 
between the pebbles. The forms can be taken down and the 
face scrubbed with the wire brush, as 'described, giving a very 
unique effect. 

The important point in the above methods of finishing is 
to remove the forms while the concrete is green, so the mortar 
can be scrubbed off with the brush. 

The N. Y., N. H. & H. Railroad has adopted the following 
method of finishing the surface of .concrete work done along 
its lines: 

For abqtment work the mixture employed is 1:3:6, and 
gravel is extensively used for the coarse aggregate; specifica- 







186 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 


tions require that not over 5 per cent should be less than \ inch 
in size, and the other limit is placed at 2^ inches. For parapets, 
bridge seats, and arches, the mixture is made 1:2:4, and in 
all cases exposed surfaces are faced with a rich Portland cement 
mortar laid against the forms as the concrete advances Con¬ 
crete on the exposed surfaces is rubbed down with bricks of 
carborundum, emery or grindstone to remove board marks 
and small irregularities, and the surface is then treated to a 
thin coat of rich Portland cement mixed thoroughly, rubbed 
in with wood or steel float trowel. 

See page 67 for wash used by the Wabash Ry. for face of 
concrete work. 

Tooling monolithic concrete also gives it a good appearance 
and takes off any irregularities caused by the swelling or 
buckling of the forms. The tooling can be done with a stone¬ 
cutter’s crandall, or with a pneumatic tool. 

Fire-resistance of Concrete. —The fire-resisting qualities 
of concrete depends to a large extent on the aggregate used. 



6 x 


Fig. 133.—Diagram Showing Concrete Floor Composed of Bays of Different 
Compositions and Character of Aggregates. 


Broken brick, or terra-cotta, furnace slag, or vitrified clinkers, 
should be used for the aggregate of any concrete to be termed 


strictly fire-proof. Broken stone or gravel is often used as 


an aggregate in concrete fireproofing, but unless it is of a stone 
little effected by heat, the concrete will not withstand the 
action of heat and water. 

Limestone should never be used in concrete for fire-proofing. 

During the year 1905 the British Fire-Prevention Committee 
made tests of various fire-proof concretes, as shown in Fig. 
133. 

The following is a description of the aggregates, giving 










EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 187 

the amount of aggregate to one part by volume of cement in 
each case: * 

“ 1. Furnace-slag Concrete. Bay No. 1.—Blast-furnace slag 
from the Islip Ironworks, Thrapston, Northampton, broken 
to pass a 1^-in. ring, three parts. Clean pit sand from Kent, 
two parts. 

“ 2. Broken Brick Concrete. Bay No. 2.—Broken brick to 
pass a 1^-in. ring, three parts. Clean pit sand from Kent, two 
parts. 

“ 3. Broken Granite Concrete. Bay No. 3.—Broken granite, 
f-in. (Guernsey granite chips), three parts. Clean pit sand 
from Kent, two parts. 

“4. Burnt Ballast Concrete. Bay No. 4.—.Burnt ballast, 
viz., clay from the neighborhood of Child’s Hill, burnt with 
slack coal, broken to pass a 1^-in. ring, five parts. 

“ 5. Coke Breeze Concrete. Bay No. 5. — Coke breeze broken 
to pass a l|-in. ring (free from fine dust), from the retorts of 
a London gas company, five parts. 

“ 6. Clinker Concrete. Bay No. 6. — Furnace clinker, viz., 
the raking from the furnaces of large boilers, broken as last 
three parts. Clean pit sand from Kent, two parts. 

“7. Thames Ballast Concrete. Bay No. 7. (South Bay). — 
Thames ballast dredged from the River Thames to pass a 14-in. 
ring, three parts. Clean pit sand from Kent, two parts. 

“ The object of this test was to determine the effect of fire on 
a floor composed of seven equal bays of concrete identical in 
all respects, except in the character of the aggregate and the 
composition of the concrete mixture. The fire was to last 
three hours, with a temperature reaching 1800° F., but not 
exceeding 2200° F., and was to be followed by the application 
of a hose stream under 60 lbs. pressure through a |-in. nozzle 
to the underside of the floor for a period of two minutes. Pre¬ 
vious to the fire test the top of the floor was to be loaded with 
a weight of 224 lbs. per square foot. 

“The following is a log of the test. The table shows the 
temperature taken from the four pyrometer points, Nos. 5, 
8, 9, and 10: 

“At 2 p.m. the gas was lighted; from 2.10 p.m. onward the 
plastering fell off the beams in patches continuously through- 


* Abstracts of Report on Experimental Fire Test made Oct. 24, 1905, 
by the British Fire-Prevention Committee, 1 Waterloo Place, Pall Mall, 
London, England. 




188 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 

out the test, but nothing occurred to record with regard to the 
bays; at 5 p.m. the gas was turned off. At 5.3 p.m. water 
was applied for three minutes at about 65 lbs. pressure through 
two branches (one through each of the door openings on the 
east side) each with a ^-in. nozzle. The effect of this was to 
wash more of the plastering off the beams, but nothing further 
could be observed. At 5.6 p.m. the water was turned off. 

“ During the test it was observed that the edges of the slabs 
Nos. 1, 4, and 7 were red hot; this was seen from above in the 
cavity between the edge of the slabs and the wall. 

“ Observations after Test. 

“On Oct. 25 the bricks forming the load were partly removed 
and the whole were removed on Oct. 26. On Oct. 25 observa¬ 
tions as to the state of the underside of the beams, and slabs 
were made, and on Oct. 27 observations as to the state of top. 

“ Bay No. 1. Slag Concrete.—Soffit.—Practically flat on the 
underside; slight cracks visible corresponding to those on top. 

“Top.—Slab cracked across in two places into about three 
equal parts, curved downwards about |-in. in the width. 

“ Bay No. 2. Broken Brick Concrete.—Soffit.—Curved down¬ 
wards £-in. in the centre, in the width; slight cracks visible 
corresponding with those on top. 

“ Top.—Slab cracked across in three places into four rather 
unequal parts, the west-end portion of the slab being the largest 
very slight curve downwards. 

“Bay No. 3. Granite Concrete.—Soffit.—Curved downwards 
\ in. in the centre, in the width. About 1 in. washed off the 
surface in one part and slightly more or less all over the area 
struck by the water. 

“ Top.—Slab cracked across in three places, into four parts, 
the west-end portion being the largest, curved downwards 
about 4- iu. in the width. 

“ Bay No. 4. Burnt Ballast Concrete.—Soffit.—Roughly 
curved downwards about in. in the centre in the width. 
About 3 ins. in depth washed off the surface in one part, along 
the third beam from the north, the greatest depth being about 
3 ft. from the west side of the hut. 

“ Top.—No cracks—not curved. 

“Bay No. 5. Coke Breeze Concrete.—-Soffit.-—Flat on the 
underside. About 1 in. washed off the surface, generally all 
over, more or less where struck by the water. 






EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 189 


“TABLE OF TEMPERATURES TAKEN FROM POINTS NOS. 5. 8, 

9, 10. 


Time. 

P.M. 

No. 5. 
Deg. F. 

No. 8. 
Deg. F. 

No. 9. 
Deg. F. 

No. 10. 

Deg. F. 

Mins. 

Elapsed. 

2.5 

900 

900 

920 

840 

5 

2.10 

1020 

1010 

990 

, 1005 

10 

2.15 

1105 

1050 

1040 

1160 

15 


(596.1) 

(565.5) 

(560.0) 

(626.6) 


2.20 

1040 

1050 

1030 

1100 

20 

2.25 

950 

980 

990 

1000 

25 

2.30 

1020 

1040 

1060 

1040 

30 


(548.8) 

(560.0) 

(571.1) 

(560.0) 


2.35 

1050 

1100 

1150 

1100 

35 

2.40 

1180 

1220 

1210 

1200 

40 

2.45 

1200 

1310 

1320 

1280 

45 


(548.8) 

(710.9) 

(715.5) 

(693.3) 


2.50 

1300 

1400 

1380 

1380 

50 

2.55 

1280 

1350 

1380 

1360 

55 

3.0 

1300 

1450 

1420 

1360 

60 


(704.4) 

(787.7) 

(771.1) 

(737.7) 


3.5 

1350 

1440 

1500 

1420 

£ 5 

3.10 

1310 

1405 

1450 

1400 

70 

3.15 

1320 

1440 

1460 

1410 

75 


(715.5) 

(782.2) 

(793.3) 

(765.5) 


3.20 

1360 

1450 

1500 

1440 

80 

3.25 

1420 

1540 

1520 

1500 

85 

3.30 

1420 

1560 

1600 

1550 

90 


(771.1) 

(848.8) 

(871.1) 

(843.3) 


3.35 

1380 

1450 

1520 

1600 

95 

3.40 

1520 

1600 

1610 

1600 

100 

3.45 

1540 

1620 

1640 

1600 

105 


(837.7) 

(882.2) 

(893.3) 

(871.1) 


3.50 

1560 

1600 

1640 

1600 

110 

3.55 

1580 

1620 

1620 

1610 

115 

4.0 

1580 

1630 

1680 

1660 

120 


(800.0) 

(887.7) 

(915.5) 

(904.4) 


4.5 

1560 

1600 

1670 

1700 

125 

4.10 

161:0 

1700 

1740 

1720 

130 

4.15 

1680 

1720 

1780 

1760 

135 


(915.5) 

(937.7) 

(971.1) 

(960,0) 


4.20 

1700 

1720 

1800 

1780 

140 

4 25 

1700 

1760 

1800 

1810 

145 

4.30 

1700 

1780 

1850 

1820 

150 


(926.6) 

(971.1) 

(1010.0) 

(993.3) 


4.35 

1740 

1800 

I860 

1840 

155 

4 40 

1730 

1800 

1880 

1880 

160 

4.45 

1780 

1800 

1880 

1880 

165 


(971.1) 

(982.2) 

(1026.6) 

(1026.6) 


4 50 

1760 

1840 

1900 

1900 

170 

4.55 

1780 

1850 

1900 

1910 

175 

5.0 

1780 

1850 

1910 

1920 

180 


(971.1) 

(1010.0) 

(1043.3) 

(1048.8) 



Degrees in parentheses are Centigrade. 


“ Top.—No cracks—not curved. 

“Bay No. .6. Clinker Concrete.—Soffit—Flat on the under¬ 
side. 

“ Surface pitted in places about 1 in. deep where struck by the 
water and in one place 2 ins. deep; one slight crack visible. 

“ Top.—Slab cracked across in two places into about three 


















190 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 

equal parts, the west-end portion of the slab being the largest, 
curved downwards about f in. 

“Bay No. 7. Thames Ballast Concrete—Soffit.—Curved 
downwards 1^ ins. in the centre in the width. Several bad 
cracks longitudinally in the slabs, extending over almost the 
whole area, worst about the centre, the cracks being in various 
irregular directions. Surface damaged all over more than any 
of the other slabs, greatest depth about 2 ins. and a hole in 
the northwest corner through which daylight was seen. 

“ Top.—Slab cracked in very many places, cracks being gener¬ 
ally transverse or across the slab, but in various diagonal di¬ 
rections as well, no actual longitudinal cracks on upper surface, 
which are so very marked on the underside, curved downwards 
about 2 ins. in the width. 

“ Beams —Portions of the plaster remain on all the beams, 
but it is badly cracked and flaked. Each beam has part of 
the concrete washed off where struck by water. No steel work 
is exposed. The concrete is disintegrated about 1 in. in depth, 
on the soffit of each, in patches.” 

Tests made by Ira H. Woolson show that concrete with a 
trap-rock aggregate is very little affected by fire until a tem¬ 
perature of 750° is reached, while with a limestone aggregate, 
a temperature of 500° caused a great loss in strength. 

Tests made by the author show the following results, with 
concrete fire-proofing of different aggregates: 

Cinder concrete, as ordinarily used, cinders not cleaned, 
mixed 1:3:5 and heated to a dull * red, showed a loss in weight 
after heating of 7 per cent, showing that a certain amount of 
the aggregate had been consumed. After being sprinkled with 
water and cooled, the concrete could be broken and crushed 
very easily. 

Fine cinder screenings, such as are screened out of cinders 
when cleaned, and which is sometimes used as a filling between 
floor strips. Mixed 1:3:5 and heated to a dull red showed a 
loss in weight of 10 per cent, and after cooling could be crushed 
like poor lime mortar. 

Cinders composed of 60 per cent vitrified clinkers, mixed as 
above, and heated to a dull red and cooled, lost about 1 per 
cent and very little strength. 

Cinders composed of nearly all clinkers and mixed as above 


* This is equal to about 800° F. 






EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 191 


showed hardly any loss in weight or strength after being heated 
to a dull red. 

Concrete made with crushed slag aggregate, mixed 1:3:5, 
showed hardly any loss in weight or strength, after being heated 
to a dull red and then cooled. 

Concrete made with trap rock aggregate showed hardly any 
loss in weight, but after sprinkling with water and cooling, 
could be broken easier than before heating. 

The result of all tests show that if a strictly fire-proof or 
fire-resisting concrete is desired it must be made with an aggre¬ 
gate that is not in any way affected by fire, or by being cooled 
with water. 

The National Board of Fire Underwriters has recommended 
a “Building Code” from which the following excerpt is taken: 

Reinforced concrete construction may be accepted for fire¬ 
proof buildings, if designed as hereinafter prescribed; pro¬ 
vided, that the aggregate for such concrete shall be hard- 
burned broken bricks, or terra-cotta, clean furnace clinkers, 
entirely free of combustible matter, clean broken stone or 
furnace slag, or clean gravel, together with clean siliceous sand, 
if sand is required to produce a close and dense mixture; and, 
provided further, that the minimum thickness of concrete 
surrounding and reinforcing members J in. or less in diameter 
shall be 1 in.; and for members heavier than £ in. the minimum 
thickness of protecting concrete shall be four diameters, taking 
that diameter, in the event of bars of other than circular cross- 
section, which lies in the direction in which the thickness of 
the concrete is measured; but no protecting concrete need be 
more than 4 ins. thick for bars of any size; and provided 
further, that all columns and girders of reinforced concrete 
shall have at least 1 inch of material on all exposed surfaces 
over and above that required for structural purposes; and all 
beams and floor slabs shall have at least f in. of such surplus 
material for fire-resisting purposes; but this shall not be con¬ 
strued as increasing the total thickness of protecting concrete 
as herein specified. 

All the requirements herein specified for protection of steel 
and for fire-resisting purposes shall apply to reinforced con¬ 
crete filling between rolled-steel beams, as well as to reinforced 
concrete. Any concrete structure or the floor filling in same 
reinforced or otherwise, which may be erected on a permanent 
centering of sheet metal, of metal lathing and curved bars, or 



192 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 

a metal centering of any other form, must be strong enough to 
carry its loads without assistance from the centering, unless 
the concrete is so applied as to protect the centering as herein 
specified for metal reinforcement. . « 

Exposed metal centering or exposed metal of any kind will 
not be considered as a factor in the strength of any part of 
any concrete structure, and a plaster finish applied over the 
metal shall not be deemed sufficient protection. 

All concrete for reinforced concrete construction whenever 
used in such buildings must be mixed in a machine which 
mixes one complete batch at a time, and entirely discharges 
it before another is introduced. At least 25 complete revolu¬ 
tions must be made at such a rate as to turn the concrete over 
at least once in each revolution for each batch. 

Before permission to erect any concrete-steel structure is 
issued, complete drawings and specifications shall be filed with 
the Commissioner of Buildings, showing all details of the con¬ 
struction, the size and position of all reinforcing rods, stirrups, 
etc., and giving the composition of the concrete. 

The execution of work shall be performed by workmen under 
the direct supervision of a competent foreman or superin¬ 
tendent. 

The concrete shall be mixed in the proportions of 1 of cement, 
2 of sand, and 4 of other aggregates as before provided; or the 
proportions may be such that the resistance of the concrete to 
crushing shall not be less than 2000 lbs. per sq. in. after harden¬ 
ing for 28 days; but for reinforced or plain concrete columns 
the mixture shall not be leaner than 1 part of cement, 2 of 
sand, and 5 of the coarser aggregate in any case. The tests 
to determine this value must be made under the direction of 
the Commissioner of Buildings. The concrete used in concrete- 
steel construction must be what is usually known as a “wet” 
mixture. 

Only high-grade Portland cements shall be permitted in 
reinforced concrete or concrete-steel constructed buildings. 
Such cements, when tested neat, shall, after one day in air, 
develop a tensile strength of at least 300 lbs. per sq. in.; and 
after one day in air and six days in water shall develop a ten¬ 
sile strength of at least 500 lbs.; and after one day in air and 
27 days in water shall develop a tensile strength of at least 
600 lbs. Other tests, as to fitness, constancy or volume, etc., 
made in accordance with the standard method prescribed by 




EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 193 

the American Society of Civil Engineers, may, from time to 
time, be prescribed by the Commissioner of Buildings. 

The sand to be used must be clean, sharp grit sand, free from 
loam or dirt, and shall not be finer than the-standard sample 
kept in the Department of Buildings. 

The stone used in the concrete shall be a clean, broken stone, 
of a size that will pass through a £ in. ring, or good gravel 
may be used in the same proportion as broken stone, or broken 
hard bricks, or terra-cotta, or furnace slag, or hard clean clinkers 
may be used. 

Refractory Concrete.— This is a composition on which a 
United States patent has recently been allowed. It is a com¬ 
pound of carbon and incompletely reduced silica (two of the 
highest refractories) and Portland cement. 

The carbon-silica compound is reduced in an electric furnace 
at a temperature of 6000° C. 

The composition is worked the same as cement-concrete, 
wet, and poured or tamped into forms or to the desired shape, 
or as a lining for furnaces, kilns, etc., it can be used in the 
form of a plaster. 

It can be used with any aggregate used in concrete and will 
render any concrete more or less refractory, depending on the 
quantity used. 

Expansion and Contraction of Concrete. —Long walls of 
concrete if not reinforced should have expansion joints about 
every 30 feet. Ordinary concrete walls not reinforced will 
expand or contract as much as ^ inch in 30 feet. If the con¬ 
crete is well reinforced with iron it is not so liable to crack. 
Walls of reinforced concrete have been built two and three 
hundred feet in length with no joints, and which developed no 
cracks. Still it is best to make provision every 50 or 60 feet 
to take care of the expansion and contraction. 

Concrete made rich in cement will contract or shrink more 
in drying than a poor mixture. Also a concrete made with 
fine sand will shrink more than if coarse sand had been used. 

Porosity and Permeability of Mortar and Concrete.— 

Porosity is the property of materials for absorbing water. 

Permeability is that property of concrete and other materials 
lAdiich permits water to pass through it. 

To make mortar or concrete water-proof, enough cement 
must be used in the mixture to insure all the voids in the sand 
and aggregate being filled solid. This will require an excess 


194 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 


of cement over the exact bulk of the voids, as the cement may 
not be distributed uniformly throughout the concrete. If 
concrete the mixture should be mixed wet enough to ‘ quake” 
when tamped into place, and it should be tamped and w r orked 
until all air bubbles are worked out. 

The degree of waterproofness of concrete depends entirely 
on the denseness or solidity of the mass. For this reason a 
wet mixture is more waterproof than a dry mixture, as there 
are less voids and air bubbles. 

If to each part of cement used there is used 10 per cent of 
lime putty, it will make a more nearly water-proof mixture 
than if no lime is used. 

For mortar the following mixtures will be found nearly water¬ 
proof, and if when used for plastering it is given a troweling 
on the surface, it will make it more dense and waterproof. 


Portland cement, 1 

<< a y 

tt k i 

it a i 


sand, 1. 
“ 2 ; 
“ 3; 

“ 4; 


lime putty, 

a a i 


“ “ 1*. 


A number of tests on the permeability of cement mortar 
under water pressure have been made by Jos. W. Ellms, chemist, 
Commissioner of Water Works, Cincinnati, Ohio, from which 
he made the following deductions: 

1. No mortar is absolutely impervious to water if placed 
under sufficient pressure. 

2. The permeability of a mortar decreases with age; and 
differences in the permeability of different mortars of approxi¬ 
mately the same composition also largely disappears with age. 

3. The permeability of mortars of approximately similar 
composition and made from the same grade of material, is 
probably more dependent on the compacting they receive 
when being placed than on almost any other factor. 

4. The continuous filtration of water through mortar tends 
to decrease its permeability. Obviously this is not true if 
the water contains constituents which would produce disin¬ 
tegration of the cement, such as might be found in sea water, 
in water containing a large amount of carbon dioxide gas in 
solution, or in acid waters. 

5. Mortars rich in cement are less permeable than mortars 
containing smaller proportions of cement to sand. 

6. Mortars mixed dry are more permeable than those mixed 



EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 195 


wet, but this difference diminishes the longer the dry mixture 
mortar is subjected to the continuous filtration of water. 

7. The thoroughness with which the sand and cement are 
mixed and the extent to which the voids in the sand are filled 
by the cement, or in other words, the greater the density of the 
mortar, no matter how attained, the less permeable it becomes. 

A solution of 1 pound of concentrated lye, 5 pounds of alum, 
and 2 gallons of water mixed with cement in the proportion 
of 1 pint of the solution to 5 pounds of cements and applied 
with a brush and well rubbed in will make cement walls water¬ 
proof. 

The Puddling Effect of Water Flowing through Con¬ 
crete.* —In the summer of 1904 Mr. W. R. Baldwin-Wiseman 
conducted a series of experiments on the rate of flow of water 
through a specimen of concrete, identical in composition with 
that used in the construction of the new graving-dock at South¬ 
ampton. The experiments extended over a period of 50 days, 
readings being taken daily, or at more frequent intervals as occa¬ 
sion demanded, and an account of them has recently been 
published by the Institution of Civil Engineers. 

The cylinder of concrete on which the experiments were 
conducted was 13 in. in diameter and 6 in. in thickness, and 
was made in a heavy wooden mould, on March 11, of Portland 
cement and crushed gravel ballast, gauged in the ratio of 
1 to 4. The cement used was a normal chamber-kiln product 
giving the following tests: Residue on a 50X 50-mesh sieve, 
1.0 per cent; residue on a 76X76-mesh sieve, 4.0 per cent; 
setting time, 1 hour; tensile strength of briquettes made with 
22 per cent of water and shaken into a mould without pressure, 
450 lbs. per square inch after 7 days, and 600 lbs. per square 
inch after 28 days; specific gravity, 3.16. The ballast was 
obtained from the bed of the River Test; the stones were passed 
through a 1-in. ring, and both stones and gravel were of vary¬ 
ing fineness, thus considerably reducing the percentage of voids. 

The concrete had a specific gravity of 2.23, corresponding to 
a weight of 140 lbs. per cubic foot. It was removed from the 
wooden mould on May 18, and was fitted into a water-tight 
steel ring 13} in. in internal diameter and 6 in. in height, form¬ 
ing part of the apparatus used in the experiments. In order 
to prevent side-flow best Swedish pitch was poured in small 
quantities, in a boiling condition, into the space between the 


* Engineering Record, 



196 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 


concrete and the metal; and to obviate any tendency to leakage 
through the pitch, rings of best rubber, A in. in thickness, 
12 in. in diameter and 14 in. in external diameter, were placed 
above and below the test-block and between the block and 
the planed faces of the apparatus. The test-piece was fitted 
on a heavy cast-iron ring of exactly 12 in. in internal diameter, 
connected by bolts and nuts to a heavy cast-iron shallow 
reservoir above, accurately turned to an internal diameter 
of 12 in. and provided with a- heavy flange, in which, as in the 
lower plate, was recessed a lip, slightly beveled inwards, thus 
insuring, with the rubber rings already referred to, an absolutely 
water-tight joint. The reservoir was surmounted by a heavy 
cast-iron stem recessed 'into it, and making with it an absolutely 
water-tight joint; at the upper end of this stem was an easily 
adjustable gland, consisting of a coil of rubber packings between 
two metal disks beveled internally, any water accumulating 
in the gland during an experiment being drawn off by a drip- 
tube. An accurately turned steel plunger working through 
this gland carried at its upper end a metal cap on which the 
loads were piled; and a pointer, rigidly attached just beneath 
the shoulder of the cap, slid over two fixed scales graduated 
in millimetre-divisions. The pressure on the upper face of the 
test-piece was recorded on a very sensitive Bourdon gauge 
fixed on a ^-in. pipe, the centre of which was 1 in. above the 
upper face of the test-piece. The flow was measured by the 
descent of the piston, a drop of 1 millimetre being equivalent 
to a discharge of 6.205 cu. cm. of water, and the areas were 
so adjusted that a discharge of 1 cu. cm. per second was equiva¬ 
lent to a discharge of 1 imp. gal. per hour per square foot of 
test-piece exposed. The water used, which was taken from 
the corporation mains, was pumped from chalk, and was re¬ 
duced from 18° to 6° of hardness, which was the hardness 
maintained throughout the experiments. The temperature of 
the air throughout the experiments varied between 12° and 
15° C., but Mr. Baldwin-Wiseman did not introduce any cor¬ 
rection for variation of the viscosity of the water with tem¬ 
perature, or for variation of the volume with pressure and 
temperature, as these did not appreciably affect the results. 

It will be observed, on examination of the results on the 
experiments shown in Table 1, that, for a constant pressure 
of moderate magnitude, the flow at any time varies inversely 
as the time from the commencement of the experiments, but 


EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 197 


TABLE 1—TABLE SHOWING THE VARIATION IN THE AMOUNT 
OF WATER PERCOLATING THROUGH.6 INCHES THICKNESS 
OF PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE. 


Days from 
Commence¬ 
ment. 

Duration 
of the 

Experiment. 

Pressure in 
Pounds 
per Sq. In. 

Flow in Imp. 
Gallons per 
Hour per 
Sq. Ft. per Lb. 
of Pressure. 

Per Cent of 
Flow in the 
First 

Experiment. 


h. 

m. 

s. 




1 

2 

2 

35 

36 

0.000398 

100.0 

1 

0 

7 

25 

36 

0.000387 

97.3 

1 

0 

5 

0 

60 

0.000345 

86.7 

1 

0 

9 

0 

60 

0.000191 

48.0 

2 

1 

16 

40 

24 

0.000197 

49.5 

2 

9 

35 

55 

24 

0.000172 

43.2 

3 

13 

0 

0 

34 

0.000125 

31.4 

4 

25 

9 

0 

34 

0.000109 

27.4 

4 

9 

21 

0 

34 

0.000087 

21.0 

5 

18 

40 

0 

40 

0.000090 

22.6 

6 

24 

10 

0 

40 

0.000075 

18.8 

7 

16 

56 

0 

40 

0.000066 

16.6 

7 

2 

53 

0 

40 

0.000060 

15.1 

22 

26 

39 

0 

32 

0.000014 

3.5 

23 

10 

19 

0 

32 

0.000012 

3.0 

31 

26 

46 

0 

31 

0.0000083 

2.1 

32 

28 

59 

0 

31 

0.0000077 

1.9 

36 

71 

18 

0 

31 

0.0000070 

1.8 

38 

48 

7 

0 

31 

0.0000050 

1.5 

42 

69 

50 

0 

30 

0.0000049 

1.2 

44 

24 

25 

0 

48 

0.0000088 

2.2 

45 

21 

35 

0 

48 

0.0000066 

1.7 

46 

25 

15 

0 

48 

0.0000028 

0.7 


with a sudden change of pressure there is a corresponding 
variation in the flow. Towards the conclusion of the experi¬ 
ments, small stalactitic growths appeared on the underside of 
the test-piece, and the percolation was so slow that no water 
fell into the drip-tin, the water being evaporated from the 
underside of the test-piece as quickly as it percolated through. 
The results of the experiments appear to show that, at or near 
the surface of the concrete, and under a moderately high pressure, 
the water dissolves out some of the material of the concrete, 
but under the reduced pressure which prevails in the small 
pores at some distance from the surface the dissolved material 
is precipitated on the sides of the pores, reducing the flow and 
eventually checking it. 

Waterproofing Concrete. —Sylvester Process .—For water¬ 
proofing concrete surfaces that are subjected to slight or inter¬ 
mittent heads of water, the “Sylvester Process’' has been 
used with success on some of the fortification works constructed 
by the government engineers. The method of mixing and 
applying was as follows: Thoroughly dissolve f pound of 












198 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 


shaved Castile soap in 1 gallon of water, also dissolve \ pound 
of powdered alum in 4 gallons of water. The walls should be 
dry and the soap applied first, at a boiling heat, being laid 
on with a flat brush, and not allowed to froth. After the 
soap wash has been on about twenty-four hours, and is thor¬ 
oughly dry, the alum wash is applied in the same manner, 
being at a temperature of about 65°. This also should be 
allowed to dry for twenty-four hours before a second coat is 
put on. In a few cases one coat of each of the two mixtures 
have been sufficient; generally two or three coats of each are 
necessary to make the concrete impervious to water. The 
application of the process gives the concrete a uniform color 
and generally improves the appearance. 

On floor work the mixture can be poured on and swept over 
the floor with a broom until the concrete has absorbed all it 
will. 

Two brushes should be used, one for each solution. 

Water-proofing Basement Walls .*—It is extremely difficult 
to make a basement watertight by plastering on the inside 
surface, but not impossible. It can be done by thoroughly 
soaking the walls and sprinkling or painting with neat Portland 
cement and immediately applying a plastering composed of 
equal parts of cement and sand, using water-proof compound 
to the amount of about 2 per cent of the cement used. The 
neat cement will make a firm joint between the wall and plaster¬ 
ing. The plaster must be applied immediately after the neat 
cement has been dusted or painted on. If the neat cement 
is used as a paint, it must be freshly mixed in small quantities 
every few minutes and followed by the plaster before it has 
set. Let the work be done in dry weather when no water is 
entering; or drain the work until the cement has a chance to 
set and harden. 

Use of Concrete in Freezing Weather. —The use of 
concrete when the thermometer is below the freezing-point 
should be done with great precaution, if done at all. 

The effect of freezing on Portland cement concrete is not so 
serious as it is on concretes made with natural cement, and 
when Portland cement concrete has been frozen and when 
thawed is given time to set hard and dry without freezing 
again, it will show little effects of being frozen. However, if 


* Cement 



EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 199 


it is frozen and thawed alternately several times, it will lose 
a great deal of its strength and may become worthless. 

When putting in large masses of concrete it can usually be 
put in place and covered immediately to prevent it being 
frozen, but with small bodies of concrete, such as columns, 
beams, floor slabs, sidewalks, etc., they should not be put in 
place when the concrete is liable to be frozen before having 
set hard. ' 

There are various methods used to prevent concrete from 
freezing, such as mixing salt in the concrete, mixing with hot 
water, warming with salamanders, steam, etc., but the only 
absolutely sure way to do a good and satisfactory job of con¬ 
crete work, is to wait until warm weather comes. If 
salt is used to prevent freezing, the proportion to use is 
from 8 to 10 per cent of the weight of water used to mix the 
concrete. 

Stable bedding arM horse manure have often been used to 
protect concrete work and keep it from freezing. The heat 
from the manure will prevent the concrete from freezing, but 
the acids in the manure is liable to penetrate the surface of the 
concrete before the cement has set, and these acids will destroy 
the setting qualities of the cement and spoil the work. When 
.stable bedding or manure is used the concrete should first be 
covered with about an inch of sand before the bedding or 
manure is spread. This sand will then prevent the bedding 
or manure from coming in contact with the cement and the 
sand will absorb the acids before they reach the cement. 

Action of Cinder Concrete on Iron. —In several cases re¬ 
cently it has been found that iron which had been imbedded 
in cinder concrete had been badly eaten with rust or acids. 

Small gas pipes laid in cinders in the Norwegian Hospital, 
Fourth Avenue and Forty-sixth Street, Brooklyn, N. Y., were 
found to be almost entirely destroyed. These pipes were |- and 
£-in. gas pipe laid about 1^ ins. deep in the cinder fill about the 
girders. The pipes had to all appearance been destroyed by 
electrolysis, but tests failed to show any stray electric currents. 
Moreover, as all pipes except those laid in the cinder were 
intact, the destruction was doubtless due to the composition 
of the ashes, possibly to sulphuric acid contained in them. 

Cinder concrete made rich with cement has very little, if 
any, effect on iron imbedded in it, as the cement overcomes 
the action of the adds in the cinders. 


200 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 


In cinder concrete made poor in cement, or which is sub¬ 
jected to being wet and drying alternately after being put in 
place, the action of the acids in the cinders will destroy the 
iron. 

Thus all reinforcing to be used in cinder concrete should be 
galvanized or painted to prevent rusting. 

Portland Cement Used Under Water.— When necessary 
to use Portland cement concrete or mortar for this purpose, 
the mixture must be protected from any disturbance whatever 
by the water when being put into place, and great care should 
be taken that the water in which it is afterwards submerged 
be still. If exposed to flowing water, either during or after 
depositing, the cement, the sand and the stone will invariably 
be separated. 

Various' methods are used to deposit concrete under water, 
as confining it in bags and putting into place the bags forming 
various shaped blocks of concrete when laid in place. Another 
method is to lower the bag, then open it, letting the concrete 
run into place. 

A good method is to force the concrete down through a 
large pipe or tube, keeping the lower end of the pipe down to 
the deposited concrete. The pipe must be kept full of con¬ 
crete and the weight of the concrete in the pipe will force it 
out below. 

Buckets which open at the bottom are also used success¬ 
fully in depositing concrete under water. 

Effect of Oils on Concrete. —Concrete for engine beds or 
floors, where it will be liable to be subjected to oil drippings, 
or come in contact with oils in any manner should be thor¬ 
oughly mixed and tamped into place so it will be one solid 
mass with no voids, and the exposed surface should be troweled 
to give it a finished surface through which the oil will not 
penetrate. 

With a hard surface free from voids and given two or three 
months time to harden concrete will not be affected by oils, 
but if it is of a poor mixture or not given time to harden before 
coming in contact with the oil, the oil will penetrate into the 
concrete and cause it to disintegrate. 

The following gives the result of tests of oil on cement mortar 
which was made at Cornell University, and which was described 
in a paper read by R. C. Carpenter,* Am. Soc. M. E., at the 


* Professor of Experimental Engineering, Cornell University. 



EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 201 


Annual Meeting of American Society for Testing Materials, 
Atlantic City, June 20-22, 1907, as follows: 

“I have been unable to find any references to tests showing 
the effect of oil on concrete, although the question is often of 
considerable importance in connection with foundations for 
machinery. I find that the impression is frequently held among 
engineers that oil used in machinery is injurious to concrete 
foundations. 

“In order to ascertain the effects of oil on concrete, Mr. 
Sawdon, an instructor in the Mechanical Laboratory of Sibley 
College, Cornell University, made the following investigations 
which, although not sufficient to fully decide the matter, will, 
I believe, throw some light on the question. 

“The experiments were conducted by making briquettes of 
neat cement to which 2 per cent of oil was added in addition 
to the water. These briquettes were tested for tensile strength 
at the end of 24 hours, 7 days, and 28 days. As a basis of 
comparison, a test was also made of briquettes made from 
the same cement in the same manner without the addition 
of oil. 

“Another series of tests was made on normal briquettes of 
neat cement which were kept in water 8 days, after which they 
were soaked in oil for 20 days. The table on page 202 give 
the results of the various tests, 

“Considering the results of this experiment, it is noted that 
the effect of the oil when mixed with the cement is to materially 
retard the hardening process, and this is more marked with 
the linseed oil than with the engine oil. Even at the end of 
the 28-day period the briquettes mixed with 2 per cent oil were 
materially weaker than those without oil, although of sufficient 
strength to pass most specifications. 

“The soaking of briquettes which were 8 days old, for 20 days 
in oil apparently had no material effect when linseed oil was 
employed and had a sensible weakening effect when engine oil 
was used. 

“The results of the tests referred to are being supplemented 
by more extensive tests not yet completed. It will be noted 
in connection with these tests that adding 2 per cent of oil 
to the cement did not effect the soundness test.” 

Efflorescence on Concrete. —The white efflorescende some¬ 
times seen defacing concrete is not permanent or serious, and 
is easily removed by scrubbing with broom and water. It is 


202 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 


TABLE I—SOUNDNESS PATS -NEAT CEMENT. 


No. Treatment. Test. Results. 

*.l.1 day in moist air. Boiled 3 hours. Sound 

*2.1 day in moist air. 8 days in linseed oil. Sound 

*3.1 day in moist air. 8 days in engine oil. Sound 

4.1 day in moist air. Boiled 3 hours. Sound 

X 5 .1 day in moist air. Boiled 3 hours; Sound 


* Without oil, 23 per cent water, 
t 23 per cent of water, 2 per cent linseed oil. 
J 23 per cent of water, 2 per cent engine oil. 
All the pats adhered to the glass plate. 


TABLE II.—TENSION TESTS OF CEMENT MORTAR IN OIL. 


Neat cement, 23 per cent water, 
no oil. Allowed to set 24 }► 
hours in moist air.I 


23 per cent water, 2 per cent lin¬ 
seed oil. Allowed to set 24 
hours in moist air. 


23 per cent water, 2 per cent 
engine oil. Allowed to set 
24 hours in moist air. 

Neat cement, 23 per cent water, 
no oil. Allowed to set 24 
hours in moist air, 10 days in 
water and 8 days in oil. 


Days in 

Strength in Pounds 
per Square Inch. 

Air. 

Water. 

Earth Test. 

Average. 

1 

0 


430 

1 

1 

6 

6 

753 1 

640 J 

696 

1 

l 

27 

27 

735 \ 

751 J 

743 

1 

1 

0 

0 

190 \ 

170 J 

180 

1 

1 

6 

6 

455 \ 

532 / 

493 

1 

1 

27 

27 

6181 

525/ 

572 

1 

1 

0 

0 

3201 

345 J 

332 

1 

6 


689 

1 

27 


696 

Linseed oil 


720 

Engine oil 

692 

673 

Engine oil 

655 



TABLE III —SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 


Neat cement, no oil. 

Mixed with 2 per cent linesed oil 
Mixed with 2 per cent engine oil 
Soaked after 8 days in engine oil. 
oSaked after 8 days in linesed oil 


Pounds per Square Inch. 

24 Hours. 7 Days. 28 Days. 

430 696 743 

180 t 493 572 

332 687 696 

673 
720 


caused by the wetting and drying of the concrete which leaches 
out the magnesium and calcium sulphates from the concrete. 

Cements containing much sulphates of magnesium and cal¬ 
cium are more liable to show an efflorescence than those con¬ 
taining little of the above sulphates. 

These sulphates are dissolved by water or dampness in the 
concrete and brought to the surface of the concrete where they 

































EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 203 


are deposited in a crystalline form. Thus this efflorescence 
usually appears after a long wet spell when the concrete has 
been exposed to much water or dampness. 

The more nearly waterproof the concrete the less efflorescence 
will show on the surface. 

When the surface of concrete is to be tooled over, if this 
tooling is not done until the water has leached to the surface 
the sulphates from the concrete, the tooling will remove perma¬ 
nently all the efflorescence. 

Concrete to which salt has been added is very liable to show 
efflorescence. 

Adhesion of Steel Rods and Concrete. —Various tests 
have been made by different engineers to obtain the adhesive 
power of steel rods bedded in concrete. Some of the tests 
showing as high as 700 pounds per square inch of surface of 
the rod, and about an average of 250 pounds per square inch. 

This is for plain, round, or square rods, and should be con¬ 
sidered as the limit of adhesion and used with a safety factor. 

Deformed bars which form a mechanical bond with the 
concrete show a much greater strength of bond between the 



Fig. 134.—Mechanical Bond of “Johnson Bar.” 


rod and the concrete on account of the mechanical bond be¬ 
tween the two. According to tests recently made at the engi¬ 
neering experiment station of the University of Illinois, little 
difference exists in the bond resistance per square inch of surface 
of the steel bar, whether the bar is imbedded 6 ins. or 12 ins. 
in the concrete, the average resistance due to adhesion being 
from 350 to 450 lbs. per square inch of contact surface of plain 
round steel bars. The adhesion in a rich 1:2:4 mixture of 
concrete is 10 to 15 per cent higher than in a 1:3:6 mixture. 
Flat bars show a lower resistance than round bars. The value 
of the adhesion depends upon the smoothness of the surface 
of the bar, the uniformity of its section and diameter, the 
adhesive strength of the concrete, and the shrinkage grip 
developed in setting. With cold-rolled shafting, smooth and 



204 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ACTIONS ON CONCRETE. 


of uniform diameter, the adhesion is only about 147 lbs. per 
square inch of surface in contact with the concrete, while ordi¬ 
nary steel bars, having rough surfaces and varying in section 
and diameter, show an adhesion of about 400 lbs. With twisted 
or otherwise deformed bars anchored in the concrete through¬ 
out their length, very much higher resistances are developed. 

Fiff. 134 shows the mechanical bond between the “Johnson 
bar’' and concrete. 

Action of Sea Water on Concrete. — Concrete that is 
made so dense that the sea water cannot penetrate to its in¬ 
terior will withstand the effects pf sea water; also on concrete 
that is under the water and is not alternately submerged and 
exposed to the air, waves, and tides, the salt water has little 
if any effect. 

It has been noticed that sea walls above high tide and below 
low tide have been very little affected by the salt water, the 
line of effect or disintegration being between high and low 
tides, when the concrete. is exposed to the action of the 
waves, and to being wet and dry alternately as the tides rise 
and fall. 

Poor concrete or concrete containing voids through which 
the salt water can penetrate will in time decompose by the 
action of the salt water. 

Cements that contain large amounts of lime and alumina 
are more readily attacked by the sea water than those that 
contain less lime and no alumina. 

The Germans are now making a cement free from alumina, 
and which it is claimed withstands the action of sea water. 

Puzzolan cements withstand the disintegrating effects of sea 
water better than other cements. 

After a number of tests and studies of the action of salt water 
on various cements, Henri Le Chatelier, Paris, prepared and 
presented before the International Association for Testing 
Materials a paper in which he arrived at the following conclusions: 

The most important conclusions from a chemical point of 
view, regarding the decomposition of hydraulic' cements when 
exposed to sea water, are the following: 

1. All the active ingredients in cements—lime, aluminates, 
and silicates—are decomposed immediately they come into 
direct contact with the magnesium salts of sea water, yielding 
soluble chlorides and sulphates of calcium, and so bringing all 
the lime present into a state of solution. 


VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 205 


2. When the calcium sulphate found in natural waters or 
formed by the interaction of magnesium sulphate and the 
calcium compounds of cement reacts with calcium aluminate, 
it produces a calcium sulph-aluminate whose crystallization 
gives rise to swelling and cracking in the material. The action 
resembles that consequent upon the hydration of quicklime, 
but is much slower. 

3. Penetration of marine salts takes place in two different 
ways; sea water penetrates en masse through all the flaws 
in the points of the masonry and through the crevices in the 
stones and bricks themselves. Most of these flaws in work¬ 
manship are unavoidable. From the present aspect, the normal 
porosity of cement plays only a secondary part in the process. 
Afterwards, when the cement is sound, circulation of and 
attack by sea water occurs almost exclusively by a process of 
diffusion, being the more rapid as the normal porosity of the 
cement is the greater. 

4. All the phenomena of decomposition in sea water are at 
the mercy of a superficial film of extreme tenuity, whose im¬ 
permeability tends to prevent, or rather to hinder, diffusive 
action, but whose expansion, caused by the formation of cal¬ 
cium sulph-aluminate, promotes swelling of the material and 
cracks through which the salt water soon penetrates in quantity. 



Fia. 135.—Form for Building Boulder or "Niggerhead” Wall. 


Boulder-faced Walls.— A novel and very nice appearing 
wall for fence, garden, or retaining walls is made, as shown by 
Fig. 135, using field boulders or “nigger-heads” for the face 
of the wall as shown, and filling in with concrete. 





















206 VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


The boulders are set against the wood forms and the interior 
filled with concrete, several boulders being put in place, then 
the space filled with the concrete. 

After the concrete is hard enough, the forms are taken down 
and the boulders scrubbed off and the joints neatly pointed. 

Concrete Cisterns. —Fig. 136 shows a method of construct¬ 
ing a concrete cistern. The circular forms are built as shown, 
the side ribs being formed of two pieces nailed together. 

The concrete bottom is first put in place, after which the forms 
are set, and the concrete for the walls deposited. The con- 



Fig. 136.—Cistern Forms. 


Crete for the bottom and wall should be rich with cement and 
mixed with enough water to render it mushy. It should be 
well tamped and puddled into place, so as to work out all air 
spaces and bubbles. 

After the side forms have been filled in build a platform in 
the cistern, and on this platform shape the top or crown of 
the cistern with damp sand or earth, as shown. On this form 
of sand or earth deposit the concrete, leaving a manhole in the 
top, as desired. 

After the concrete is hard the sand or earth can be taken 
out and the forms all removed. The inside of wall and bottom 
should then be given a coat of strong cement plaster to which 
has been added a little lime putty. The top of the cistern 















VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 207 


should be plastered on the outside to prevent any surface 
water from penetrating. 

In firm and solid clay the author has built cisterns, as shown 
by Fig. 137; the clay being cut out to the desired shape and 



size as shown. A shoulder is cut on the walls, as shown, upon 
which the top rests. The top is put in place, as previously 
described, and after the forms are removed, the wall and bottom 



is plastered directly on the clay with cement mortar to a thick¬ 
ness of 2 inches. 

Cisterns of this kind which the author built in 1886, are as 
good to-day as when built. 

Metal forms are now on the market for making concrete 
cisterns, as shown hy Figs. 138 and 139. 













































































208 VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 

Concrete Chimneys* —Concrete chimneys can be built with 
perfect safety, the best chimney being made with an aggregate 
of clinkers or slag. 

The chimney can be cast in forms or built up of blocks. 
When cast in forms it is well to reinforce it with several rods 
running from top to bottom, and also horizontal rods running 
around it at intervals. 

Concrete chimneys should not be put to use until perfectly 
dry. 

Cement Chimney Caps. —Cement chimney caps can be cast 
either in place or in moulds on the ground, and then set same 

as a stone cap. To cast the 
caps in place put a form around 
the chimney top, as shown by 
Fig. 140, making the member A 
the thickness desired for the 
projection of the cap over the 
brickwork. After the member 
A is put in place put on the 
member B, making the depth 
Fl °- 14 ?^e F ChTmne5;caps din8Con ' that desired for the thickness 

of the cap. ' Make a box or in¬ 
side form, as C, the size of the flue, place it in position, and 
fill in around with the concrete as shown. After the concrete 
has set sufficiently remove the forms and trowel smooth. 





































VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 209 


Setting-stone or Concrete Steps.— Fig. 141a shows the rise 
and run of a flight of five steps, having a 12-inch tread and 
8-inch rise. If the steps are cut square and set level the total 
rise would be 3 feet 4 inches and the total run 5 feet, but as 
it is customary to give the the treads of steps a droop or fall 
of about f inch, it adds f inch to the rise of each step and would 
make the total rise 3 feet-41 inches. The solid lines in the 
cut represent the steps set level and the dotted lines show 
set with a fall. 

When the steps are cut square and set with a fall it throws 
the face of the step inch out of plumb, and if the steps are 
then set to show 12-inch tread we lose X V inch in the run of 
each step and the run of the five steps would be reduced to 
4 feet Ilya inches. 

To keep the run 5 feet the steps should be set to show 12xV 
inches on the tread, as shown, and to keep the total rise to 
8 inches per step the steps must be set to show 7f inches rise 
on the face of the step. 

Cement Brick. —Every manufacturer of cement blocks 
should have a brick machine in his shop, especially if the loca¬ 
tion is such that there are no clay brick kilns near, and the 
price of clay brick is high. 

Cement brick are coming more into use and demand every 
day, and the block manufacturer who also runs a cement-brick 
machine can manufacture bricks at odd times when the block 
business may be slack and thus keep a stock of bricks on hand 
for sale, and at the end of the year the sales of cement brick 
will help swell the profits of the business. 

Using a mixture of 1 cement and 5 of sand, a yard of sand 
and 6f bags (about If barrels) of cement will make about 
1000 bricks, and four or five men should turn out from 12,000 
to 15,000 bricks per day. 

Sand-lime Brick. —Sand-lime brick are made by mixing 
about 95 per cent of sand and 5 per cent of lime together. The 
sand should be fine enough and the lime ground fine enough to 
pass a 20-mesh sieve. The sand and lime are mixed with a 
small amount of water and then pressed into moulds. After 
the moulded brick is taken from the moulds it is loaded on a 
car which when loaded is run into a cylinder or retort, which 
is then closed and a steam pressure of about 125 pounds is 
turned on and kept at this pressure for ten or twelve hours, 
when the bricks are taken out ready for use. 


210 VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


Fence Posts. — There are several makes of iron moulds for 
casting cement or concrete fence posts now on the market, 
and which give good satisfaction, but for the ordinary square 



tapering post, good forms can be made of wood, as shown by 
Figs. 141 and 142o 



Fig. 141 shows a form for making four posts tapering 
on two aides only. The form is made with stay blocks, as 


VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 211 


shown at A, fastened to the platform with a large screw or 
bolt. These stay blocks hold the forms in place. When the 
concrete is tamped in place and set these blocks are turned to 
one side, thus releasing the forms. 

The four spaces should be filled with the concrete and tamped 
at the same time, so as not to spread or bulge the inside par¬ 
titions of the forms. 

Fig. 142 shows the same style of form, but made for posts 
tapering on all sides. Stay blocks are used, as explained for 
Fig. 141. 

The post should be reinforced at each corner with a length 



SECTIONAL VIEW 



Fig 143. —Wire Fastening for Concrete Fence Posts. 

of twisted fence wire. These wires should be imbedded in the 
concrete about f inch from the surface at each corner. 

Whatever device is to be used to fasten the fence wires must 
be inserted in the concrete before it sets. A good device of 
this kind is shown by Fig. 143, or a loop of galvanized wire 
with the ends turned or twisted and imbedded in the concrete, 
as shown by Fig. 144, makes a good fastening. 

Owing to the small body of the post and the strength re¬ 
quired, the concrete mixture for making posts should be pretty 
strong. 

A good proportion is 1 part cement, parts sand, and 
4 parts of broken stone or gravel to pass a ?-inch sieve. 















212 VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


The mixture should be used medium wet and enough forms 
should be used to allow the concrete to set before removing 
the forms. 

Four bags (1 barrel) of cement, 8^ cubic feet of sand, and 14 
cubic feet of stone or gravel mixed in the above proportions 
will make 13 posts 7 feet in length, 6X6 inches at the butt, 
and tapering to 3X6 inches at the top, or 14 posts 7 feet in 
length, 6X6 inches at the butt, and tapering to 4X4 inches 
at the top. 

The post tapering to 3X6 inches is the stronger, as it is set 
with the parallel sides with the direction of the fence, thus 



Fig. 144. —Staple Fastening. 

throwing the thick way of the post to receive any shock likely 
to be given the fence. 

The green posts should not be handled under 7 days and 
then very carefully, and should not be used in the ground 
under 6 weeks of age. 

Troughs, Sinks, etc. —Watering troughs, etc., can very 
easily be made with concrete, using wooden forms or moulds. 
Fig. 145 shows a section and Fig. 146 a plan of a form for cast¬ 
ing a trough. 

As shown, the outside box or form is halved together at 
the angles and held in place by the stays or braces which are 
nailed to the platform. When the trough is cast these stays 
can be taken up, thus loosening the forms, which can readily 
be removed. 

After the outer form is set up the concrete should be filled 
in to the thickness required for the bottom of the trough, 






VARIOUS USES OP CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 213 


tamped solid, and leveled off to receive the inside form, which 
should then be put in place and the sides filled in with the 
concrete. If necessary, nail a couple of cleats across the top 



of the form to hold the inside form down while tamping the 
concrete. 

The inside form should be made as shown, and the cleats 
should be put on with screws, so they can be easily taken off, 
thus making it easy to remove the forms. The top edges of 
the trough can be rounded off as shown. 



To reinforce the concrete expanded metal or woven wire should 
be put in as shown, on all sides and bottom. 

The mixture for this sort of work should be used rather wet 
and should be worked into place, so as to break and remove 
all air pockets or spaces. It should be mixed 1 part cement, 




































214 VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


2 parts sand, 3 parts small broken stone or gravel, and, to make 
the mixture more waterproof, a little lime putt^'-should be 
added. 

This putty should be made up several days before using, to 
insure every particle being thoroughly slaked. 

When completed the trough should be given several coats 
of some waterproofing compound, such as described on page 
197. 

Concrete Stairs or Steps.— Fig. 147 shows how to con¬ 
struct the forms for building a flight of concrete stairs or steps. 
A plank should be set up on each side of the steps with the 
rise and tread of the steps laid out on it as shown. Planks 



should then be cut between these two planks and put in place 
to form the rise of the steps, being held in place by cleats and 
wedges nailed on the plank, forming the side of the steps. 

These cleats should be put on so a wedge, shown by I, can 
be inserted between the cleat and form for the rise. The 
object of this wedge is, so it can be easily removed, thus freeing 
the plank forming the rise of the steps, so it can be taken out. 

When the steps are built up an embankment the earth can 
be graded off to suit the slope and the concrete deposited 
thereon, but for stairs in buildings or such places, a wood form 
must be erected, as shown, to carry and form the back or 
soffit of the stairs. 

In such cases the stairs should be reinforced with expanded 
metal or some other suitable reinforcing as shown. 






















VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE 215 


In depositing the concrete a coating of mortar should be 
kept against the plank forming the rise of the steps, and the 
tread should be given a top dressing about an inch in thick¬ 
ness. 

The coarse concrete can be deposited and tamped solid, then 
the top dressing of the steps put in place, and the face forms 
removed and both the rise and tread of the steps troweled 
smooth. 

On page 373 will be found a table giving the rise and tread 
of steps for various rises and runs. 

When putting concrete in place around a beam, such as is 
shown by Fig. 18 on page 108, the soffit of the beam should 
be covered with a mortar mixture of cement and sand, thin 
enough so it will run under the beam and fill the space where 



FiQ. 148.—Cavity Caused by Poor Ramming or Puddling. 

it would be difficult to force concrete made with a large aggre¬ 
gate. 

The mortar should be forced through from one side until 
it appears on the opposite side of the beam. This will insure 
the space being filled with mortar. 

If the mortar or concrete is put in on both sides simulta¬ 
neously and rammed, the air under the beam will be confined 
and will cause a pocket or void in the concrete soffit of the 
beam, as shown by Fig. 148. 

Drain Tile and Sewer Pipe.— The concrete for drain tile 
and sewer pipe should consist of 1 part of Portland cement 
with 3 to 5 parts of clean, sharp gravel, entirely free from voids, 
and containing no stone of more than \ inch in diameter. If 
no gravel is procurable, well crushed stone, not exceeding 
\ inch in diameter, mixed with sufficient sharp sand to fill 
all voids, may be substituted in about the same proportions. 
If neither crushed stone nor gravel is available the mixture 










216 VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


may consist of 1 part cement to 3 or 4 parts of clean, sharp sand. 
In preparing the mixture add only sufficient water .to bring the 
mixture to the consistency of damp earth. The moulds should 
be filled as quickly as possible after the mixture is prepared 
and thoroughly tamped as they are being filled. The strength 
of the tile will depend not only upon the quality of the cement 
and the aggregate, but upon the thoroughness of the tamping 
as well. It is very necessary that the concrete be well set 
before the removal of the mould. The inner core may be 
compressed and withdrawn almost immediately after the 
filling of the mould, but the outer shell should stand in place 
for from one to two hours, according to the state of the weather, 
before removal. It is advantageous to have a few extra bottom 
rings, and in the event of building one size of tile only an extra 
outside shell will facilitate the work. In hot weather this 
tile should be made and kept well protected from the rays bf 
the sun, and should be frequently sprinkled with water for a 
few days after being made to provide the necessary moisture 
to carry the hardening process to completion. The tile should 
stand for three weeks or a month before being put to use. If 
possible, it is better to make the tile one year for use the follow¬ 
ing year. If, however, it is necessary to use them shortly 
after they are manufactured they should be handled very 
carefully. 

Laying of Drain Tile. —Judgment must be exercised in 
determining the necessary size of tile for road crossings. A 
great volume of water will be carried away by a 12-inch tile 
if properly laid, and if at the outlet end there is sufficient fall 
for the escaping water. In many cases, of course, it is necessary 
to use a larger tile than one 12 inches in diameter, but it is 
absolutely necessary that from 8 to 12 inches of well laid roadbed 
cover the tile to prevent injury from traffic, and on this account 
it is sometimes difficult to get the tile placed at the' necessary 
draining level. Where the use of one very large tile would 
necessitate the raising of the road level to a great height in 
order that the tile may be properly protected, it is advisable 
to use two or more tiles of a small size, placed one or more 
feet apart, with the intervening earth very solidly packed 
between and around them. The appearance of a road culvert 
of this kind is very much enhanced by the construction of 
mouth-shaped Portland cement concrete abutments. It is 
most important that the bottom of the tile should be slightly 


VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 217 


below the level of the feeding ditch, and that the tile be laid 
with a reasonable dip, and at the outlet end the greater the fall 
for the escaping water the better. Drain tile molds can be pro¬ 
cured of the following diameters: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24, 
30, and 36 inches. 

Plastering or Patching Old Concrete or Sidewalks.— 

To make a mortar for plastering on old concrete, patching 
sidewalks, etc., mix the mortar thoroughly, then let it stand 
for about an hour, or until the initial set takes place, then 
add about 5 per cent lime putty and remix until it is a plastic 
mass of a uniform color (the more mixing the better). 

Wash the surface on which the mortar is to be applied with 
a solution of diluted muriatic acid, which takes out all the 
dirt and opens the pores of the old work, then wash with clean 
water. Apply the mortar, keeping the old work well wet, and 
as soon as the new plastering is in place, cover with burlap and 
keep wet for several days until thoroughly hard. 

Plastering put on in this manner will not scale or peel off. 

Dry Grouting Brick Pavements.— On a bed of about 6 
inches of concrete spread about 1 inch of. dry sand and cement, 
mixed 1 part cement to 2 parts sand. Level this off for a 
cushion and lay the bricks, keeping them apart about £ inch 
all round. After the bricks are set in place ram them to an 
even bearing by laying a plank on the bricks and ramming 
with a heavy hammer. After the bricks are rammed solid and 
level on top spread over and brush all the joints full of a dry 
mixture of equal parts of sand and cement, then sprinkle with 
as much water as the cement in the joints and cushion will 
absorb. 

This manner of grouting leaves the top of the pavement 
clean and also leaves the filling of the joints a little below 
the top of the bricks, thus giving a rough surface for a foothold 
for horses. 

When laying the bricks thin strips of wood or metal can be 
used in the joint to keep the courses of bricks apart. As soon 
as one course is laid the strip is taken out to use for the next 
course. 

A Paint for Concrete —A wash or paint for concrete is 
made by mixing two parts of Portland cement with, one part 
of marble dust to the consistency of cream and applying with 
a brush. The surface to which it is to be applied should be 
thoroughly wetted just before the paint is put on. 


218 VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


Non-freezing Cement. —Referring to non-freezing cement, 
Le Beton Arme, gives a number of methods of producing this 
material in cases of urgency, and where the cost of the work 
dose not make the use of the expedients too high. 

First, the making of the mortar with hot water, which is 
stated to be quite efficacious. 

Second, the addition of hydrochloric acid to the Portland 
cement; or, 

Third, a solution saturated with soda is also given as a method 
of producing prompt setting and hardening at short periods. 

An excellent mixture of this kind may be obtained by mixing 
one quart of cement and lime, three quarts of river sand and 
two quarts of water, containing in solution two pounds of soda. 

The Effect of Frost on Cinder Concrete.* —In dis¬ 
cussing a paper recently read before the Boston Society of 
Civil Engineers, Mr. J. R. Worcester gave some information 
as to the effect of frost on cinder concrete. He was called 
in as an expert to examine some concrete, which it was 
claimed was poorly applied in a piece of work done with ex¬ 
panded metal reinforcement. Upon examination, he recom¬ 
mended that the work should be torn out, but at the request 
of the contractor more time was allowed. After a couple of 
weeks of warm weather which dried the upper surface, the 
setting, which had been delayed by the frost, took place as 
naturally as it would if it had never been frozen, and when the 
final test was made it stood a load of 244 pounds per square 
inch. 

Cement-milk Paint. —Stir into a gallon of skim-milk about 
4 pounds of Portland cement. The skim-milk will hold the 
paint in suspension, but the cement being heavy, will sink to 
the bottom, so that it is necessary to keep the mixture well 
stirred with a paddle while using. Mix only enough at a time 
for one day’s use. This paint becomes hard in about eight 
hours and is very durable. 

It can be colored by the use of any paint powder. The 
addition of carbolic acid or any other disinfectant makes it 
very suitable for dairy work, chicken houses, etc. 

Color of Concrete. —The color of concrete is always the same 
as the color of the materials when uniformly mixed dry; thus 
to know the color of finished seasoned (hardened) concrete, 


* Cement Age. 



VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 219 


mix your materials identically as you intend to use them, and 
such, mixed before the addition of water, will be the color 
of the finished product. 

Painting on Cement or Concrete.— Paint will not adhere 
to any cement work unless it is perfectly dry or seasoned. 
The caustic properties must become neutralized by age before 
the paint will adhere perfectly. 

As this requires some time, the following receipt is given, 
which will accomplish the same result artificially: 

Sponge the surface with a solution of 12 fluid ounces of oil 
of vitriol (sulphuric acid) in 1 gallon of soft water. This will 
neutralize any caustic lime that is present in the cemented 
surface and turn it into the inert sulphate of lime (gypsum). 
It also roughens the surface, giving the oil or paint a better 
grip, so that succeeding coats will obtain a firm hold. Then 
to neutralize the remaining traces of acid alkali, apply a wash 
of strong vinegar arid allow the vinegar to dry thoroughly 
before applying the paint. 

When the cement is a month or so old the dilute acid wash 
can be dispensed with and a solution of 4 ounces of bicarbonate 
of ammonia in 2 gallons of water used in its place, in which case 
the surface need not be rinsed with clear water, but may be 
painted upon as soon as it is dry. In order to exclude moisture 
the best plan is to prime the surface treated as above with good 
old raw linseed-oil, giving it ample time to become hard. Upon 
this coat of oil, which should be applied liberally to stop suc¬ 
tion, a coat of flat paint, composed of the necessary pigments, 
linseed-oil, turpentine, and japan drier, should be given, and 
if this shows up unevenly another coat of the same paint and 
finally a finishing coat of weather-proof gloss paint or enamel, 
made of good pigments and exterior varnish. This treatment 
is certain to keep out moisture and is, of course, intended for 
concrete blocks that are not colored, but made in the natural 
color of cement. For colored concrete blocks, where it is desired 
to preserve the original color and which, as a matter of course, 
are not to be painted, one part of water glass (silicate of soda, 
concentrated) is to be mixed with three parts of rain water. 
When this is applied to the cemented surface it decomposes 
any lime that may be present and converts it into silicate, 
and while the Color becomes somewhat darker the surface 
acquires a hardness which resists the action of the weather 
and keeps out moisture. 


220 VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 


Painting with Cement Wash.— The following method of 
painting a cement wall was described at a recent convention of 
master painters. The building had become discolored in places, 
and the joints were of a different color from the surface of the 
blocks. Two parts of Portland cement were mixed with one 
part of marble dust and mixed with water to the consistency 
of thin paint or a thick whitewash. The wash was applied 
with ordinary whitewash or calcimine brushes, and a man kept 
• busy playing a hose on it while the work was being done. The 
wall was well wetted before the application of this paint and 
kept constantly wet while the material was applied, and then 
kept up for a day longer, in order to make the cement wash 
adhere to the cement surface. The whole secret of success 
lay in keeping the wall constantly wet. 

Water for Mixing Concrete. —The water for mixing con¬ 
crete should be as clean as possible, and should contain no 
acids. Water which runs from coal mines should not be used 
for concrete work, as it usually contains free sulphuric acid, 
and iron sulphate, and is not fit for cement work. 

Grades of Concrete. —Concrete can be divided into three 
grades, depending on the strength of the mixture, and the 
different grades can be used for the various purposes for which 
concrete is used, the grade to be used depending on the strength 
required and the use to which the concrete is to be put. The 
three grades may be known as first, second, and third class 
concrete. The proportions for first class - concrete are 1;2:4, 
the aggregate to be hard trap, granite, or gneiss. 

The proportions for second class concrete are 1: 2|: 5, and 
for third class are 1:3:6; the aggregate for the second or third 
class concrete may be a hard broken stone or gravel, as ap¬ 
proved. 

To Retard the Setting of Cement. —A small percentage 
of lime putty (about 5 per cent) will lengthen the time of setting 
of cement mortar. Or let the mortar take its initial set and 
then remix thoroughly. Mortar that has had its initial 
set and is retempered is twice as slow in setting as it was 
before. 

Light-colored Cements. —The lightest colored cements 
are those manufactured in the Lehigh Valley, Pa., “ Lehigh,” 
“Dragoon,” “Whitehall,” etc. 

A white Portland cement is also manufactured by the Art 
Portland Cement Co., Kimmel, Indiana. 


VARIOUS USES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE. 221 


To Remove Mortar Spots from Concrete Blocks.— 

To remove mortar spots from concrete blocks caused by being 
spotted with mortar when set, wash thoroughly with a solution 
of hydrochloric acid and water. After using the acid wash 
well with clean water to remove all acid. 

Laying Floors for Concrete or Tile. —A wood floor upon 
which concrete or tile is to be laid should always be laid with 
open joints, say | inch to boards 10 inches wide; or in like 
proportion, so that when the concrete is laid there will be no 
danger of the floor bulging up when the boards swell after the 
wet concrete is put upon them. 

Removal of Forms. —The forms on some concrete work, 
such as small foundations, walls, etc., can be removed in two 
or three days, but on walls that extend to considerable height, 
columns, girders, floor slabs, etc., the forms must be left iu 
place much longer. On ordinary floor work supported by 
I-beams, the centering, or forms, should be left in place at 
least ten days, and with work reinforced with rods, the forms 
should be left in place for at least 3 or 4 weeks, and, in some 
cases, especially in cold weather, they should be left in place 
longer. Nearly all the recent failures of concrete work have 
been the result of poor work and removing the forms too 
soon. 

To Harden Concrete Surfaces. —The surface of concrete 
can be rendered much harder by the application of a wash 
of silicate of soda and potash mixed in about 10 parts of water. 
The wash fills all the pores of the concrete and renders it hard 
and waterproof. 

The silicate of soda and potash is known as soluble glass or 
dissolved flint, .and when mixed as a wash is called “ water-glass.” 

The concrete should be free from all moisture before the 
wash is applied. 

Use of Slag Cement. —A slag cement should not be used 
for any concrete work above the ground where it will be kept 
dry, as it is not durable unless exposed to moisture. 

Water-proofing for Cement Blocks. —Shave \ lb. castile 
soap into 1 gallon water; let it dissolve, but do not make suds. 
Apply it while boiling hot to the surface of the blocks, using a 
brush. After the soap wash dries apply a lukewarm solution 
of \ lb. powdered alum in 4 gallons of water. Two coats of 
this mixture will close the pores and render the blocks water¬ 
proof. 


222 TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 


Duodecimals are denominate fractions of a linear, square, 
or cubic foot, formed by successively dividing by 12. 

Duodecimals are used chiefly in the measurement of lines, 
surfaces, and solids. 

The foot is the unit of measure, and is divided into 12 equal 
parts, called 'primes ('); each prime, into 12 equal parts, called 
seconds ("); each second, into 12 thirds ('"); and each third, 
into 12 fourths etc. These marks used to denote the 

different denominations are called Indices. 


Table of Units. 


1' = 1/12 of a foot. 

1" =1/12 of 1' =1/12 of 1/12 of 1 ft. = 1/144 ofafoot. 

1"'=1/12 of 1" =1/12 of 1/144 of 1 ft. = 1/1728 ofafoot. 

1""= 1/12 of 1"'= 1/12 of 1/1728 of 1 ft. = 1/20736 of a foot. 


Duodecimals are added and subtracted in the same manner 
as other Compound Denominate Numbers. 

Multiplication of Duodecimals is similar to that of Com¬ 
pound Numbers. 

The denomination of the product of two or more factors 
is indicated by the sum of their indices. 

Example. —Multiply 18 ft. 6' by 9 ft. 3'. 

Explanation. —6'X3'=18" = 1' 6". Write 18 ft. 6' 

the 6" one place to the right, and add 1' to the 9 ft. 3' 

next product. 18X3'+1' = 55' = 4 ft. 7', which - 

write in their order. Next, 9X6'= 54'= 4 ft. 6'. 4 ft. 7' 6" 

Write the 6' in its place, and add the 4 to the next 166 ft. 6' 

product. 18X9 + 4\/166 ft. The sum of > the- 

partial products is 171 ft. 1' 6". 171 ft. 1' 6" 

To Find the Cubical Contents of Floor Slabs.— To 
compute the cubical contents of concrete slabs or floors of 
various thicknesses, multiply the surface of the floor cr slab 
by the following: 

If concrete is 


2 inches thick multiply by 0.166 will give cubical contents. 


3 “ “ “ “ 0.250 “ “ “ “ 

4 t( 11 t( “ o 333 i( 11 il tl 

5 “ “ “ “ 0.416 “ “ “ “ 

6 “ “ tl “ 0.500 “ 11 “ “ 

7 “ “ “ “ 0.582 “ “ “ ** 

8 “ ** “ “ 0.666 i( 11 “ ** 






TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 223 


If concrete is 


9 inches thick multiply 

by 0.750 will give 

10 

i i 

11 

i t 

< ( 

0.833 

i i 

11 

11 

i i 

11 

11 

i ( 

0.916 

i t 

it 

12 

i c 

11 

tt 

i i 

1.000 

a 

11 

13 

ii 

. << 

i t 

i i 

1.083 

11 

11 

14 

i i 

tt 

a 

i i 

1.166 

11 

a 

15 

i i 

a 

a 

( i 

1.250 

i i 

a 

16 

i i 

a 

11 

i e 

1.333 

a 

a 

17 

ii 

a 

i i 

i i 

1.416 

i i 

a 

18 

ii 

a 

i i 

a 

1.500 

11 

a 

19 

i i 

a 

a 

i i 

1.582 

a 

a 

20 

a 

i i 

11 

i i 

1.666 

a 

a 

21 

i i 

a 

11 

i i 

1.750 

a 

it 

22 

i i 

i i 

11 

i i 

1.833 

a 

tt 

23 

a 

it 

i t 

i i 

1.916 

a 

a 

24 

i i 

i t 

11 

i ( 

2.000 

et 

a 


cal contents. 


What a Barrel of Portland Cement Will Do. 


A barrel of Portland cement weighs about 380 pounds net. 

A barrel of Portland cement weighs about 400 pounds gross. 

A barrel of Portland cement contains about 3.40 cu. ft. packed. 

A barrel of Portland cement contains about 4.25 cu. ft. loose. 

A barrel of Portland cement contains about 2.73 bushels 
packed. 

A barrel of Portland cement contains about 3.61 bushels loose. 

A barrel of Portland cement will make about 3.15 cu. ft. of 
neat mortar. 

A barrel of Portland cement will make about 5.4 cu. ft. of 
mortar mixed 1 to 1. 

A barrel of Portland cement will make about 8.5 cu. ft. of 
mortar mixed 1 to 2 

A barrel of Portland cement will make about 10.7 cu. ft. 
of mortar mixed 1 to 3. 

A barrel of Portland cement will make about 13.5 cu. ft. 
of mortar mixed 1 to 4. 

A barrel of Portland cement will make about 23 cu. ft. of 
concrete mixed 1, 3, 5. 

A barrel of Portland cement will make about 26 cu. ft. of 
concrete mixed 1, 3, 6. 








224 TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 


A barrel of Portland cement will make about 29 cu. ft. 
concrete mixed 1, 3, 7. 



A barrel of Portland cement will make about 30 cu. ft. of 
concrete mixed 1, 3, 8. 

A barrel of Portland cement (neat) will cover about 40 sq. 
ft. 1 in. thick. 

A barrel of Portland cement to 1 sand will cover about 65 
sq. ft. 1 in. thick. 

A barrel of Portland cement to 2 sand will cover about 92 
sq. ft. 1 in. thick. 

A barrel of Portland cement to 3 sand will cover about 128 sq. 
ft. 1 in. thick. 

A barrel of Portland cement to 2 sand will lay about.750 
brick with f-in. joint. 

A barrel of Portland cement to 2 sand will lay about 1050 
brick with f-in. joint. 

A barrel of Portland ’ cement to 3 sand will lay about 900 
brick with f-in. joint. 

A barrel of Portland cement to 3 sand will lay about 1350 
brick with f-in. joint. 

A barrel of Portland cement to 3 sand will lay about 2 perches 
of rubble stonework. 

Amount of Sidewalk per Barrel of Cement —1 bar¬ 
rel of cement will lay sidewalk as follows: 


Base, 1-2-4, 3f inches thick \ 
Top, 1-1, f inch ihick / 
Base, 1-2-4, 4 inches thick \ 

Top, 1-1, 1 inch thick / 

Base, 1-2-4, 5 inches thick \ 

Top, 1-1, 1 inch thick / 

Base, 1-3-5, 3 inches thick f 

Top, 1-1, 1 inch thick j 

Base, 1-3-5, 4 inches thick \ 

Top, 1-1, 1 inch thick J 

Base, 1-3-5, 5 inches thick ”1 

Top, 1-1, 1 inch thick j 

Base, 1-3-6, 3 inches thick \ 
Top, 1-1, 1 inch thick / 

Base, 1-3-6, 4 inches thick f 

Top, 1-1, 1 inch thick j 

Base, 1-3-6, 5 inches thick \ 

Top, 1-1, 1 inch thick J 


37 square feet. 


30 square feet. 


31 square feet. 


34 square feet. 


38 square feet. 


32 square feet. 


29 square feet. 


35 square feet. 


24 square feet. 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 225 


The exact amount of finished or rammed concrete to a given 
quantity of cement depends largely on the size and nature 
of the sand and aggregate used. A fine aggregate will have 
less voids, and hence will give a slightly larger amount of 
rammed concrete than would the same quantity of a coarser 
aggregate, which would require more sand and cement to fill 
the voids in the stone used. 


CONTENTS OF CONCRETE BEAMS IN CUBIC FEET FOR EACH 
FOOT OF LENGTH OF BEAM. 


Dimension 
of Beam 
in Inches. 

Contents of 
Beam to 
each Foot 
of Length. 

Dimension 
of Beam 
in Inches. 

Contents of 
Beam to 
each Foot 
of Length. 

Dimension 
of Beam 
in Inches. 

Contents 
of Beam to 
each Foot 
of Length. 

6X6 

0:25 

10X28 

1.94 

15X28 

2.91 

6X8 

0.33 

10X30 

2.08 

15X30 

3.12 

6X10 

0.42 



15X32 

3.33 

6X12 

0.50 

12X12 

1.00 

15X34 

3.54 

6X14 

0.58 

12X14 

1.17 

15X36 

3.75 

6X16 

0.66 

12X16 

1.33 



6X18 

0.75 

12X18 

1.50 

16X16 

1.77 

6X20 

0.83 

1*2X20 

1.66 

16X18 

2.00 

6X22 

0.92 

12X22 

1.83 

16X20 

2.22 

6X24 

1.00 

12X24 

2.00 

16X22 

2.44 



12X26 

2.16 

16X24 

2.66 

8X8 

0.44 

12X28 

2.33 

16X26 

2.88 

8X10 

0.55 

12X30 

2.50 

16X28 

3.11 

8X12 

0.66 



16X30 

3.33 

8X14 

0.77 

14X14 

1.36 

16X32 

3.55 

8X16 

0.88 

14X16 

1.55 

16X34 

3.77 

8X18 

1.00 

14X18 

1.75 

16X36 

4.00 

8X20 

1.11 

14X20 

1.94 



8X22 

1.22 

14X22 

2.14 

18X18 

2.25 

8X24 

1.33 

14X24 

2.33 

18X20 

2.50 

8X26 

1.44 

14X26 

2.53 

18X22 

2.75 

8X28 

1.55 

14X28 

2.72 

18X24 

3.00 

8X30 

1.66 

14X30 

2.91 

18X26 

3.25 



14X32 

3.11 

18X28 

3.50 

10X10 

0.69 

14X34 

3.31 

18X30 

3.75 

10X12 

0.83 

14X36 

3.50 

18X32 

4.00 

10X14 

0.97 



18X34 

4.25 

10X16 

1.11 

15X15 

1.56 

18X36 

4.50 

10X18 

1.25 

15X18 

1.87 

18X40 

5.00 

10X20 

1.38 

15X20 

2.08 

18X44 

5.50 

10X22 

1.53 

15X22 

2.29 

18X48 

6.00 

10X24 

1.66 

15X24 

2.50 

18X52 

6.50 

10X26 

1.81 

15X26 

2.71 

18X56 

7.00 
















226 TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMEMT WORK. 


CONTENTS OF RECTANGULAR CONCRETE PIERS IN CUBIC 
FEET FOR EACH FOOT OF HEIGHT. 


Size of 
Pier in 
Inches. 

Contents of 
Pier to 
Each Foot 
of Height. 

Size of 
Pier in 
Inches. 

Contents of 
Pier to 
Each Foot 
of Height. 

Size of 
Pier n 
Inches. 

Contents of 
Pier to 
Each Foot 
of Height. 

6X6 

0.25 

12X12 

1.00 

18X24 

3.00 

6X8 

0.33 

12X 14 

1.17 

18X30 

3.75 

6X10 

0.42 

12X16 

1.33 



6X12 

0.50 

12X18 

1.50 

20X20 

2.77 

6X14 

0.58 

12X20 

1.66 

20X24 

3.33 

6X16 

0.66 

12X24 

2.00 

20X30 

3.47 

6X18 

0.75 

12X30 

2.50 



6X20 

0.83 



24X24 

4.00 

6X24 

1.00 

14X14 

1.36 

24X30 

5.00 

6X30 

1.25 

14X16 

1.55 





14X18 

1.75 

30X30 

6.25 

8X8 

0.44 

14X20 

1.94 

30X36 

7.50 

8X10 

0.55 

14X24 

2.33 

30X40 

8.02 

8X12 

0.66 

14X30 

. 2.91 

30X44 

9.17 

8X14 

0.77 



30X48 

10.00 

8X16 

0.88 

15X15 

1.56 



8X18 

1.00 

15X18 

1.87 

36X36 

9.00 

8X20 

1.11 

15X20 

2.08 

36X40 

10.00 

8X24 

1.33 

15X24 

2.50 

36X44 

11.00 

8X30 

1.66 

15X30 

3.12 

36X48 

12.00 

10X10 

0.69 

16X16 

1.77 

40X40 

11.11 

10X12 

0.83 

16X18 

2.00 

40X44 

12.22 

10X 14 

0.97 

16X20 

2.22 

40X48 

13.33 

10X16 

1.11 

16X24 

2.66 



10X18 

1.25 

16X30 

3.33 

44X44 

13.44 

10X20 

1.38 



44X48 

14.66 

10X24 

1.66 

18X18 

2.25 



10X30 

2.08 

18X20 

2.50 

48X48 

16.00 


Rule. —To find the contents of a pier, multiply the height of the pier 
in feet by the contents given in the table for a pier of the desired size. 
The answer wjll be the cubical contents of the pier in feet. 


Note to Table on Page 228.—The amounts given for the top are 
approximate for a top having a rise or crown of about one-fourth the 
diameter of the cistern. These amounts will vary according to the rise 
given to the top. 

Example .—Find the concrete required for a cistern 5 feet 6 inches inside 
diameter, 8 feet in depth, with walls and top 8 inches thick, and bottom 
6 inches thick. 

The depth of the cistern, 8 feet, plus the thickness of the top and bottom, 
will give a total height of the walls of 9 feet 2 inches. 

By referring to the table we find for a cistern 5 feet 6 inches in diam¬ 
eter and walls 8 inches thick there are 12.92 cubic feet of concrete to each 

















TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 227 


CONTENTS OF ROUND CONCRETE PIERS IN CUBIC FEET FOR 
EACH FOOT OF HEIGHT. 


Diameter 

of 

Pier. 

Contents of 
Pier to 
Each Foot 
of Height in 
Cubic Feet. 

Diameter 

of 

Pier. 

Contents of 
Pier to 
Each Foot 
of Height in 
Cubic Feet. 

Diameter 

of 

Pier. 

Contents of 
Pier to 
Each Foot 
of Height in 
Cubic Feet. 

Ft. 

In. 



Ft. 

In. 



Ft. 

In. 



1 


0 

.78 

3 


7 

.07 

5 

19 

.63 

1 

1 

0 

.92 

3 

1 

7 

.46 

5 

1 

20 

.29 

1 

2 

1 

.07 

3 

2 

7 

.87 

5 

2 

20 

.96 

1 

3 

1 

.23 

3 

3 

8 

.29 

5 

3 

21 

.64 

1 

4 

1 

.39 

3 

4 

8 

.72 

5 

4 

22 

.34 

1 

5 

1 

.57 

3 

5 

9 

.17 

5 

5 

23 

.04 

1 

6 

1 

.76 

3 

6 

9 

.62 

5 

6 

23 

76 

1 

7 

1 

.97 

3 

7 

10 

08 

5 

7 

24 

48 

1 

8 

2 

18 

3 

8 

10 

56 

5 

8 

25 

22 

1 

9 

2 

40 

3 

9 

11 

04 

5 

9 

25 

97 

1 

10 

2 

64 ' 

3 

10 

11 

54 

5 

10 

26 

72 

1 

11 

2 

88 

3 

11 

12 

05 

5 

11 

27 

49 

2 


3 

14 

4 


12 

56 

6 


28 

27 

2 

1 

3 

40 

4 

1 

13 

09 

6 

1 

29 

06 

2 

2 

3 

68 

4 

2 

13 

63 

6 

2 

29 

86 

2 

3 

3 

97 

4 

3 

14 

18 

6 

3 

30 

68 

2 

4 

4 

27 

4 

4 

14 

74 

6 

4 

31 

50 

2 

5 

4 

58 

4 

5 

15 

32 

6 

5 

32 

34 

2 

6 

4 

91 

4 

6 

15 

90 

6 

6 

33 

18 

2 

7 

5 

24 

4 

7 

16 

50 

6 

7 

34 

04 

2 

8 

5 

58 

4 

8 

17 

10 

6 

8 

34 

91 

2 

9 

5 

94 

4 

9 

17 

72 

6 

9 

35 

78 

2 

10 

6 

30 

4 

10 

18 

34 

6 

10 

36 

67 

2 

11 

6 

68 

4 

11 

18 

98 

6 

11 

37 

57 


Rule. —To find the contents of a pier multiply the height of the pier 
in feet by the contents given in the table for the desired diameter. This 
will give the contents in cubic feet. 


foot of wall or height. Thus, 12.92X9 feet 2 inches = 118.43 cubic feet 
of concrete in the walls. T ing again to the table, we find the bottom 
of a cistern of this size and - inches thick contains 11.87 cubic feet, and 
the top 8 inches thick contains 18 cubic feet. By adding these sums 
together we have the total amount of concrete required for a cistern of 
the size given as follows; 

Walls, 8 inches thick. 118.43 cubic feet 

Bottom. 6 inches thick. 11.87 cubic feet 

Top, 8 inches thick. 18.00 cubic feet 


Total 


148.30 cubic feet 

























AMOUNT OF CONCRETE REQUIRED FOR CISTERNS OF VARIOUS SIZES * 


228 TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 


f J.g§ 

ry ~ (3 O 

m 


^8° «^Q 

-s-s gS 


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aj 

oog 


lOINNCCOiOI*iOiOO(0«.0»OONlO(OCNNO« 


li-HrH(M<NC 0 C 0 ^Tt<» 0 l 0 C 0 I>l> 0005 OOr-l(M'^ 


OlOOdOOiOiOLOlOO 0.0 OUJOOiflO 


^oaoOcciooo<Nioo5cot^<Mt^C'it'-eoa>*Oi-iaoio<Ni> 

rHrHrHi-llMINIMCOCO'^^lO‘OOCOt>OOOCC50l-l 


■ o^ 

3 00 


(MiM»oo3»oeoeoioo3M 


CO ^ CO t" O r 


a'-* 

I> CO TH.QO lO(MOCOCOTHOOlO<NOO*C!MOI>' , ^<NOOeOeOt'- 
iO-HI>(NC30'^OiOrHi>c<IOOTtiOiOi-Ht^<MOOTtiC3iOi-i(M 

si 

(NTH‘OI>00O’-<C0i0C00003'-<(MTj<c0r^03O(NC0i0t^O 

^H^Hr-HrHr-<!MC^(N(N<M(N(NCOfOCOCOC<3CQ' , ^'^Tt<r^Tt<lO 

a-g 

T(lij(lOt0NC003OHIJ)«ni0l0!DNQ0aOHHMTl<U5 

OCOCOO<MCOQOC3UOGOT-HfOt^OfOOO<N003(MlCiOOTtl 

si 

O'-liMC0‘0i©l>03O'-<f0rtU0I>0003O<NC0TtHOt^00'-l 

T-lr-IrHr-IrHrHi-lT-KMlNfMC'KNCKNlMCOCCCOCOfOeCCO-^ 

fl o 

00<NOO<Mt'.<NO'-iO>-nOOiOOCOaOCOC3COOO<N!^<NrH 
dNNOOOO©030 0Hr-((NM(NMMTt<^iOiO(D©NOO 

M ld 

ooh 

t^000SO’-'iMf0i0c0I^00 03O»-H(Me0TjHiOc01>0003O(N 
HHHH>HHHr-iHMM(NN(N(N(N(N(NNMCO 

mM 
a o 

QOI^iO'<#CO’-i0300I>lOTl<eO'-i03r^COiG)Th(MOOOOiO 

iO<NOOO«O^Mffit'iOMi-tOil>rt(lNOOO©)^(NOMW 

«DH 

lOOf'«I>G00300'-i<NC'OTt<Tt<iOOt>GOOOO>0>-H<N<N'>i< 

HHHHHHHHHHHHHWNfqMN 


H3 <B % 

% 13 

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00 0 00(DO©0<00©00 0(00«000©00 
CCCO'cJ<'^lOOCOCOI>l>0000030500r-<r-l(M(NMM-«^»0 


* See note on pp. 226, 227, 



































TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 229 


CONCRETES. 


Material Required for One Cubic Yard Rammed Concrete. 


Mixtures. 

Stone, 1 Inch 
and Under, 
Dust Screened 
Out. 

Stone, 2} Ins. 
and Under, 
Dust Screened 
Out. 

Stone, 21 Ins., 
with Most 
Small Stone 
Screened Out. 

Gravel, f Inch 
and Under. 

Cement. 

Sand. 

Stone. 

Cement, 

Bbls. 

Sand, 

Cu. Yds. 

Stone, 

Cu. Yds. 

Cement, 

Bbls. 

Sand, 

Cu. Y r ds. 

Stone, 

Cu. Y r ds. 

Cement, 

Bbls. 

Sand, 

Cu. Yds. 

Stone, 

Cu. Yds. 

Cement, 

Bbls. 

Sand, 

Cu. Yds. 

Gravel, 

Cu. Yds. 

1 

1.0 

2.0 

2.57 

0.39 

0.78 

2.63 

0.40 

0.80 

2.72 

0.41 

0.83 

2.30 

0.35 

0.74 

1 

1.0 

2.5 

2.29 

0.35 

0.70 

2.34 

0.36 

0.89 

2.41 

0.37 

0.92 

2.10 0.32 

0.80 

1 

1.0 

3.0 

2.06 

0.31 

0.94 

2.10 

0.32 

0.96 

2.16 

0.33 

0.98 

1.89 0.29 

0.86 

1 

1.0 

3.5 

1.84 

0.28 

0.98 

1.88 

0.29 

1.00 

1.88 

0.29 

1.05 

1.71 

0.26 

0.91 

1 

1.5 

2.5 

2.05 

0.47 

0.78 

2.09 

0.48 

0.80 

2.16 

0.49 

0.82 

1.83 

0.42 

0.73 

1 

1.5 

3.0 

1.85 

0.42 

0.84 

1.90 

0.43 

0.87 

1.96 

0.45 

0.89 

1.71 

0.39 

0.78 

1 

1.5 

3.5 

1.72 

0.39 

0.91 

1.74 

0.40 

0.93 

1.79 

0.41 

0.96 

1.57 

0.36 

0.83 

1 

1.5 

4.0 

1.57 

0.36 

0.96 

1.61 

0.37 

0.98 

1.64 

0.38 

1.00 

1.46 

0.33 

0.88 

1 

1.5 

4.5 

1.43 

0.33 

0.98 

1.46 

0.33 

1.00 

1.51 

0.35 

0.16 

1.34 

0.31 

0.91 

1 

2.0 

3.0 

1.70 

0.52 

0.77 

1.73 

0.53 

0.79 

1.78 

0.54 

0.81 

1.54 

0.47 

0.73 

1 

2.0 

3.5 

1.57 

0.48 

0.83 

1.61 

0.49 

0.85 

1.66 

0.50 

0.88 

1.44 

0.44 

0.77 

1 

2.0 

4.0 

1.46 

0.44 

0.89 

1.48 

0.45 

0.90 

1.53 

0.47 

0.93 

1.34 

0.41 

0.81 

1 

2.0 

4.5 

1.36 

0.42 

0.93 

1.38 

0.42 

0.95 

1.43 

0.43 

0.98 

1.26 

0.38 

0.86 

1 

2.0 

5.0 

1.27 

0.39 

0.97 

1.29^0.39 

0.98 

1.33 

0.39 

1.03 

1.17 

0.36 

0.89 

1 

2.5 

3.5 

1.45 

0.55 

0.77 

1.48 0.56 

0.79 

1.51 

0.58 

0.81 

1.32 

0.50 

0.70 

1 

2.5 

4.0 

1.35 

0.52 

0.82 

1.38 0.53 

0.84 

1.42 

0.54 

0.87 

1.24 0.47 

0.75 

1 

2.5 

4.5 

1.27 

0.48 

0.87 

1.29 0.49 

0.88 

1.33 0.51 

0.91 

1.16 0.44 

0.80 

1 

2.5 

5.0 

1.19 

0.46 

0.91 

1.21 0.46 

0.92 

1.26 0.48 

0.96 

1.10 0.42 

0.83 

1 

2.5 

5.5 

1.13 

0.43 

0.94 

1.15 0.44 

0.96 

1.18|0.44 

0.99 

1.03,0.39 

0.86 

1 

2.5 

6.0 

1.07 

0.41 

0.97 

1.07 0.41 

0.98 

1.10 0.41 

1.03 

0.98,0.37 

0.89 

1 

3.0 

4.0 

1.26 

0.58 

0.77 

1.28 0.58 

0.78 

1.32 0.60 

0.80 

1.15 0.52 

0.72 

1 

3.0 

4.5 

1.18 

0.54 

0.81 

1.20 0.55 

0.82 

1.24 0.57 

0.85 

1.090.50 

0.75 

1 

3.0 

5.0 

1.11 

0.51 

0.85 

1.14 0.52 

0.87 

1.17,0.54 

0.89 

1.03 0.47 

0.78 

1 

3.0 

5.5 

1.06 

0.48 

0.89 

1.07 0.49 

0.90 

1.11 0.51 

0.93 

0.97 0.44 

0.81 

1 

3.0 

6.0 

1.01 

P. 46 

0.92 

1.020.47 

0.93 

1.06 0.48 

0.97 

0.92 0.42 

0.84 

1 

3.0 

6.5 

0.96 

0.44 

0.95 

0.98 0.44 

0.96 

1.00 

0.45 

1.01 

0.88 

0.40 

0.87 

1 

3.0 

7.0 

0.91 

0.42 

0.97 

0.920.42 

0.98 

0.94 

0.42 

1.05 

0.84 

0.38 

0.89 

1 

3.5 

5.0 

1.05 

0.56 

0.80 

1.07 0.57 

0.82 

1.11 

0.59 

0.85 

0.96 

0.50 

0.76 

1 

3.5 

5.5 

1.00 

0.53 

0.84 

1.020.54 

0.85 

1.06 

0.56 

0.89 

0.92 

0.48 

0.78 

1 

3.5 

6.0 

0.95 

0.50 

0.87 

0.97 0.51 

0.89 

1.00 

0.53 

0.92 

0.88 

0.46 

0.80 

1 

3.5 

6.5 

0.92 

0.49 

0.91 

0.93 0.49 

0.92 

0.96 

0.51 

0.95 

0.83 

0.44 

0.82 

1 

3.5 

7.0 

0.87 

0.47 

0.93 

0.89 0.47 

0.95 

0.91 

0.49 

0.98 

0.80 

0.43 

0.85 

1 

3.5 

7.5 

0.84 

0.45 

0.96 

0.86 0.45 

0.98 

0.86 

0.47 

1.01 

0.76 

0.41 

0.87 

1 

3.5 

8.0 

0.80 

0.42 

0.^7 

0.820.43 

1.01 

0.81 

0.45 

1.04 

0.73 

0.39 

0.89 

1 

4.0 

6.0 

0.90 

0.55 

0.82 

| 

0.92 0.56 

0.84 

0.95 

0.58 

0.87 

0.83 

0.51 

0.77 

1 

4.0 

6.5 

0.87 

0.53 

0.85 

0.88 0.53 

0.87 

0.91 

0.55 

0.90 

0.80 

0.49 

0.79 

1 

4.0 

7.0 

0.83 

0.51 

0.89 

0.84 0.51 

0.90 

0.87 

0.53 

0.93 

0.77 

0.47 

0.81 

1 

4.0 

7.5 

0.80 

0.49 

0.91 

0.81 0.50 

0.93 

0.84 

0.51 

0.96 0.73 

0.44 

0.83 

1 

4.0 

8.0 

0.77 

0.47 

0.93 

0.78 0.48 

0.9o 

0.81 

0.49 

0.98 0.71 

0.43 

0.86 

1 

4.0 

8.5 

0.74 

0.45 

0.95 

0.76 0.46 

0.98 

0.78 

0.47 

1.01 0.68 

0.42 

0.88 

1 

4.0 

9.0 

0.71 

0.43 

0.97 

0.73 0.44 

1.01 

0.75 

0.45 

1.04 0.65 

0.40 

0.89 

1 

5.0 

9.0 

0.66 

0.50 

0.90 

0.67 0.52 

0.93 

0.70 

0.53 

0.96 0.61 

0.46 

0.83 

1 

5.0 

10.0 

0.62 

0 ..47 

0.95 

0.63 0.48 

1 

0.96 

0.65 

0.50 

1.00 0.57 

0.43 

0.87 




































230 TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 


MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR BRICKWORK OF 
TUBULAR BOILERS. 

SINGLE SETTING. 


Boilers. 

Common 

Brick. 

Fire¬ 

brick. 

Sand, 
Bushels. 

Cement, 

Barrels. 

Fire-clay, 

Pounds. 

Lime, 

Barrels. 

30 

in. 

X 

8 

ft. 

5,200 

320 

42 

5 

192 

2 

30 

in. 

X 

10 

ft. 

5,800 

320 

46 

5! 

192 

2i 

36 

in. 

X 

8 

ft. 

6,200 

480 

50 

6 

288 

2! 

36 

in. 

X 

9 

ft. 

6,600 

480 

53 

6! 

288 

22 

36 

in. 

X 

10 

ft. 

7,000 

480 

56 

7 

288 

3 

36 

in. 

X 

12 

ft. 

7.800 

480 

62 

8 

288 

31 

42 

in. 

X 

10 

ft. 

10,000 

720 

80 

10 

432 

4 

42 

in. 

X 

12 

ft. 

10,800 

720 

86 

11 

432 

4i 

42 

in. 

X 

14 

ft. 

11,600 

720 

92 

Ilf 

432 

4! 

42 

in. 

X 

16 

ft. 

12,400 

720 

99 

121 

432 

5 

48 

in. 

X 

10 

ft. 

12,500 

980 

100 

m 

590 

5! 

48 

in. 

X 

12 

ft. 

13,200 

980 

108 

13! 

590 

5! 

48 

in. 

X 

14 

ft. 

14,200 

980 

116 

141 

590 

52 

48 

in. 

X 

16 

ft. 

15,200 

980 

124 

151 

590 

6 

64 

in. 

X 

12 

ft. 

13,800 

1,150 

108 

13f 

690 

5! 

54 

in. 

X 

14 

ft. 

14,900 

1,150 

117 

15 

690 

6 

54 

in. 

X 

16 

ft. 

16,000 

1,150 

126 

16 

690 

6i 

60 

in. 

X 

10 

ft. 

13,500 

1,280 

108 

13! 

768 

5! 

60 

in. 

X 

12 

ft. 

14,800 

1,280 

118 

14| 

768 

6 

60 

in. 

X 

14 

ft. 

16,100 

1,280 

128 

16 

768 

61 

60 

in. 

X 

16 

ft. 

17,400 

1,280 

140 

17! 

768 

7 

60 

in. 

X 

18 

ft. 

18,700 

1,280 

148 

18f 

768 

7! 

66 

in. 

X 

16 

ft. 

19,700 

1,400 

157 

192 

840 

8 

66 

in. 

X 

18 

ft. 

21,000 

1,400 

168 

21 

840 

81 

72 

in 

X 

16 

It. 

20,800 

1,550 

166 

202 

930 

8! 

72 

in 

X 

18 

ft. 

22,000 

1,550 

175 

22 

930 

9 


TWO BOILERS IN A BATTERY. 


30 in. X 8 ft. 

8,900 

640 

70 

9 

384 

3! 

30 in. X10 ft. 

9,600 

640 

76 

9! 

384 

4 

36 in. X 8 ft. 

10,500 

960 

84 

10! 

576 

4i 

36 in. X 9 ft. 

11,100 

960 

88 

11 

576 

4! v 

36 in. X 10 ft. 

11.800 

960 

95 

12 

576 

41 

36 in. X 12 ft. 

13,000 

960 

104 

13 

576 

5! 

42 in. X 10 ft. 

17,500 

1,440 

140 

171 

864 

7 

42 in. X 12 ft. 

18,600 

1,440 

148 

18! 

864 

7! 

42 in. X 14 ft. 

19,900 

1,440 

159 

20 

864 

8 

42 in. X 16 ft. 

21,200 

1,440 

168 

21 

864 

8! 

48 in. X 10 ft. 

21,400 

1,960 

170 

21! 

1,180 

81 

48 in. X12 ft. 

22,300 

1,960 

178 

22\ 

1,180 

9 

48 in. X14 ft. 

23,900 

1,960 

190 

24 

1,180 

9! 

48 in. X16 ft. 

25 100 

1,960 

200 

- 25 

1,180 

10 

54 in. X 12 ft. 

23,300 

2,300 

186 

* 23! 

1,380 

9! 

54 in. X14 ft. 

24,800 

2,300 

198 

25 

1,380 

10 

54 in. X 16 ft. 

26,300 

2,300 

210 

26J 

1,380 

10! 

60 in. X 10 ft. 

22,600 

2,560 

180 

22| 

1,536 

9 

60 in. X 12 ft. 

24,800 

2,560 

198 

25 

1,536 

10 

60 in. X 14 ft. 

26,800 

2,560 

214 

27 

1,536 

101 

60 in. X 16 ft. 

28,900 

2,560 

230 

29 

1,536 

in 

60 in. X 18 ft. 

31,000 

2,560 

248 

31 

1,536 

12i 

66 in. X 16 ft. 

33,100 

2,800 

264 

33 

1,6S0 

13i 

66 in. X 18 ft. 

36,500 

2,800 

276 

35 

1,680 

14 

72 in. X 16 ft. 

34,000 

3,100 

272 

34 

1,860 

13f 

72 in. X18 ft. 

38,000 

3,100 

282 

36 

1,860 

15 
























TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 231 


MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR BRICKWORK OF FIRE¬ 
BOX BOILERS, 12-INCH WALLS. 

. Single Setting. 


Boilers. 

Brick, 

Number. 

Sand, 

Bushels. 

Cement, 

Barrels. 

Lime, 

Barrels. 

30 in.X 6! ft. 

2400 

20 

2! 

1 

30 in.X 7! ft. 

2650 

21 

2! 

1 

30 in.X 8^ ft. 

2900 

23 

2f 

u 

36 in.X 74 ft. 

3 50 

25 

3 

ii 

36 in.X 9 ft. 

3550 

28 

3! 

if 

36 in.X 10! ft. 

4000 

31 

4 

2 

42 in.X Sift- 

4000 

31 

4 

2 

42 in.X 10 ft. 

4000 

38 * 

5 

21 

42 in.XH| ft. 

5100 

41 

5! 

21 

48 in.X 10| ft. 

4900 

40 

5! 

2! 

48 in.X 12 ft. 

5400 

43 

5f 

2! 

48 in.X 13! ft. 

5800 

46 

6 

2| 

54 in.X 14 ft. 

6900 

54 

6| 

3 

54 in.X 16! ft. 

7500 

59 

73 

• 1 

3! 


MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR BRICKWORK OF FIRE* 
BOX BOILERS, 9-INCH WALLS. 

Single Setting. 


Boilers. 

Brick, 

N umber. 

Sand, 

Bushels. 

Cement, 

Barrels. 

Lime, 

Barrels. 

30 in.X 6! ft. 

1640 

14 

i! 

1 

30 in.X 7! ft. 

1820 

15 

li 

1 

30 in.X 8! ft. 

1980 

16 

2 

U 

36 in.X 7! ft. 

2240 

18 

21 

l! 

36 in.X 9 ft. 

2520 

20 

2f 

if 

36 in.X 10! ft. 

2870 

23 

3 

2 

42 in.X 8! ft. 

2870 

23 

3 

2 

42 in.X 10 ft. 

3400 

27 

3! 

21 

42 in.X 11! ft. 

3800 

30 

4 

2! 

48 in.X 10! ft. 

3600 

29 

31 

21 

48 in.X 12 ft. 

3860 

30 

4 

2! 

48 in.X 13! ft. 

4140 

33 

4! 

21 

54 in.X 14 ft. 

5150 

41 

5! 

3 

54 in.X 16! ft. 

5550 

1 

43 

51 

31 

























232 TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 


CEMENT REQUIRED TO LAY BRICKS. 

One barrel of Portland cement to 2 sand will lay about 750 
brick with f-inch joint. 

One barrel of Portland cement to 3 of sand will lay about 
1050 brick with £-inch joint. 

One barrel of Portland cement to' 3 of sand will lay about 
900 brick with f-inch joint. 

One barrel of Portland cement to 3 sand will lay about 
1350 brick with i-inch joint. 

Number of Bricks Required foi?. Chimneys. —To find the 
number of bricks required to build a chimney, find the number 
of cubic feet in the entire chimney and subtract the contents 
of the flues as follows: 

If 8-inch flues subtract one-half the length of the flue in feet. 

If 12-inch flues subtract the length of the flue in feet. 

If 18-inch flues subtract 2£ times the length of the flue in feet. 

If 24-inch flues subtract four times the length of the flue in feet. 

Multiply the answer by 20, which will give the number of 
bricks required to build the chimney. 


TABLE TO FIND THE NUMBER OF BRICKS IN ANY WALL, 


Super¬ 
ficial Feet 
of Wall. 


Number of Bricks to Thickness of Wall. 


4-in oh. 

8-inch. 

12-inch. 

16-inch. 

20-inch. 

24-inch. 

1 

71 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 

15 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

3 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

4 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

5 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

6 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270 

7 

53 

105 

158 

210 

263 

315 

8 

60 

120 

130 

210 

300 

300 

, 9 

68 

135 

233 

270 

338 

405 

10 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

20 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

30 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1,125 

1,350 

40 

300 

600 

900 

1,200 

1,500 

1,800 

50 

375 

750 

1,125 

1,500 

1,875 

2,250 

60 

450 

900 

1,350 

1,800 

2,250 

2,700 

70 

525 

1,050 

1,575 

2,100 

2,625 

3,150 

80 

600 

1,200 

1,800 

2,400 

3,000 

3,600 

90 

675 

1,350 

2,025 

2,700 

3,375 

4,050 

100 

750 

1,500 

2,250 

3,000 

3,750 

4,500 

200 

1,500 

3,000 

4,500 

6,000 

7,500 

9,000 

300 

2,250 

4,500 

6,750 

9,000 

11,250 

13,500 

400 

3,000 

6,000 

9,000 

12,000 

15,000 

18,000 

500 

3,750 

7,500 

11,250 

15,000 

18,750 

22,500 

600 

4,500 

9,000 

13,500 

18,000 

22,500 

27,000 

700 

5,250 

10,500 

15,750 

21,000 

26,250 

31,500 

800 

6,000 

12,000 

18,000 

24,000 

30,000 

36,000 

900 

6,750 

13,500 

20,250 

27,000 

33,750 

40,500 

1,000 

7,500 

15,000 

22,500 

30,000 

37,500 

45,000 













TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 233 


TABLE OF NUMBER OF BRICKS REQUIRED IN A WALL PER 
SQUARE FOOT OF FACE OF WALL. 


4 inches. 71 

8 " . 15 

12 “ .. 22 * 

16 ** .30 

20 ** 371 


24 inches.45 

28 “ 52* 

32 “ 60 

36 “ 67* 

40 “ 75 


Example .—Find the number of bricks in a wall 8 inches 
thick, 5 feet high, and 10 feet long; five multiplied by ten 
equals 50 feet of wall 8 inches thick. Under 8 inches and 
opposite 50 you will find 750, the number of bricks in the wall. 

The above tables are based on the usual sizes of Eastern 
brick; Western brick are made some larger and will take a 
slight percentage less than in the above tables. 


SIZE OF BRICK PIERS AND NUMBER OF BRICKS REQUIRED. 


Size of Pier 
in Inches. 

Number 
of Bricks 
to Each 
Foot in 
Height. 

Size of Pier 
in Inches. 

Number 
of Bricks 
to Each 
Foot in 
Height. 

Size of Pier 
in Inches. 

Number 
of Bricks 
to Each 
Foot in 
Height. 

8* X 8* 

8 

22 X30* 

70 

35 X 52* 

192 

8* X 13 

12 

22 X35 

80 



8*X 17* 

16 

.22 X39* 

90 

39*X39* 

162 

8* X 22 

20 


\ 

39* X 44 

[ 180 

8*X26* 

24 

26*X26* 

72 

39* X 48 

198- 



26* X30* 

84 

39* X 52* 

216 

13 X 13 

18 

26* X 35 

96 

39* X 57 

234 

13 X 17* 

24 

26* X 39* 

108 



13 X 22 

30 

26* X 44 

120 

44 X 44 

200 

13 X 26* 

36 



44 X 48 

220 

13 X30* 

42 

30* X 30* 

98 

44 X 52* 

240 



30* X 35 

112 

44 X 57 

260 

17*X17* 

32 

30* X 39* 

126 

44 X 61 

280 

mx22 

40 

30* X 44 

140 



17* X 26* 

48 

30* X 48 

154 

48 X 48 

242 

17* X30* 

56 



48 X 52* 

264 

17*X35 

64 

35 X35 

128 

48 X 57 

286 



35 X 39* 

144 

48 X61 

308 

22 X 22 

50 

35 X 44 

160 

48 X65* 

330 

22 X 28* 

60 

35 X 48 

176 




SIZE AND NUMBER OF BRICKS REQUIRED FOR EACH SQUARE 
FOOT OF PAVING-BRICK. 


Size of Brick. 

Number Required 
for Each Sq. Foot. 

Size of Brick. 

Number Required 
for Each Sq. Foot. 

Laid on 
Edge. 

Laid on 
Flat. 

Laid on 
Edge. 

Laid on 
Flat. 

2 X4 X8 

9 

4.5 

3 X4*X9 

5.3 

3.5 

2* X4* X 8* 

7.7 

4.1 

4 X4 X8 

4.5 

4.5 

2*X4*X8* 

6.7 

3.7 

4 X4 X9 

4 

4 

2*X4*X9 

6.4 

3.5 

4* X 4* X 8* 

3.7 

3 7 

3 X 4 X 8 

6 

4.5 

4* X 4* X 9 

3.5 

3.5 

3 X4*X8* 

5.6 

3.7 
















































234 TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK. 


NUMBER OF BRICK REQUIRED FOR CISTERNS. 

Capacity and Number op Cubic Feet in Excavation to Each Foot 
of Depth. 


Diameter of Cis¬ 
tern in Feet. 

Depth in Feet. 

Thickness of Wall 
Around Sides. 

Number of Bricks 
in Wall Around 
Sides. 

Number of Bricks 
in Bottom Laid 
Flat. 

Number cf Bricks 
in Top Arch, 

4 Inches Thick. 

Number of Bricks 
in Top Arch, 

8 Inches Thick. 

Square Feet of 

Plaster on Top 

and Bottom. 

Sq. Ft. of Plaster 

on Side to Each 

Foot of Height. 

Cu. Ft. of Excava¬ 

tion to each 

Foot of Depth. 

Contents of Cistern 

to Each Foot of 

l Depth in Gallons. 

4 

1 

4 

82 

50 

150 

320 

27 

12.5 

20 

94 

4 

1 

8 

170 

50 

150 

320 

27 

12.5 

28 

94 

5 

1 

4 

109 

78 

200 

425 

41 

15.70 

28 

147 

5 

1 

8 

225 

78 

200 

425 

41 

15.70 

38 

147 

6 

1 

4 

130 

112 

275 

600 

59 

18.85 

38 

212 

6 

1 

8 

275 

112 

275 

600 

59 

18.85 

50 

212 

7 

1 

4 

154 

152 

375 

790 

80 

21.99 

50 

288 

7 

1 

8 

319 

152 

375 

790 

80 

21.99 

63 

288 

8 

1 

4 

175 

200 

485 

1000 

105 

25.13 

63 

375 

8 

1 

8 

365 

200 

485 

1000 

105 

25.13 

78 

375 

9 

1 

8 

430 

255 

600 

1250 

135 

28.27 

78 

476 

9 

1 

12 

615 

255 

600 

1250 

135 

28 27 

95 

476 

10 

1 

8 

475 

314 

730 

1525 

165 

31.41 

113 

585 

10 

1 

12 

680 

314 

730 

1525 

165 

31.41 

132 

585 

11 

1 

8 

520 

380 

870 

1800 

200 

34.55 

132 

710 

11 

1 

12 

740 

380 

870 

1800 

200 

34.55 

153 

710 

12 

1 

12 

876 

452 

1025 

2125 

240 

37.69 

176 

847 

13 

1 

12 

880 

530 

1175 

2425 

280 

40.84 

201 

992 

14 

1 

12 

940 

616 

1350 

2800 

330 

43.98 

226 

1153 

15 

1 

12 

1000 

705 

1550 

3200 

375 

47.12 

254 

1340 


To find the number of bricks required for a cistern: In the 
table opposite the required diameter find the number of bricks 
required per foot for the desired thickness of wall and multiply 
by the desired height of the cistern in feet. To this add the 
number required for the bottom and top. 

The top should have a spring of about one-fifth the diameter. 
To reduce the capacity of the cistern to barrels divide by 31.5. 

Size, etc., of Paving-brick.— Paving-brick vary in size as 
much if not more than the common building-brick, therefore 
the size of the brick must be known to estimate correctly the 
number required for any particular piece of work. 

The table on page 235 gives the various sizes and number 
of bricks required for each square foot of paving. 















TABLES FOR ESTIMATING CEMENT WORK, 235 


NUMBER OF BRICKS AND BARRELS OF CEMENT 
REQUIRED IN BUILDING CIRCULAR 
SEWERS, ETC. 

TABLE OF BRICK IN CIRCULAR SEWERS, ONE FOOT IN 

LENGTH AND FOUR INCHES ‘DR ONE RING THICK. 

Diameter of sewer, feet... 2 2V 3 34 4 5 

Number of brick. 42 53 * 63 73'S3 105 

Barrels of cement per 100 lineal feet,. 9 11 13 15 17 20 

TABLE OF BRICK IN CIRCULAR SEWERS ONE FOOT IN 

LENGTH AND EIGHT INCHES OR TWO RINGS THICK. 

Diameter of sewer, feet. 2 24 3 34 4 5 6 8 10 

Number of brick.— 115 150 170 195 215 230 305 395 480 

^Barrels of cement per 100 lin. feet. . jj 19 22 25 27 34 40 60 75 

TABLE OF BRICK IN EGG-SHAPED SEWERS ONE FOOT IN 
LENGTH AND EIGHT INCHES OR TWO RINGS THICK. 

Inside dimen¬ 
sions. feet.. . 2X3 2|X3f 2JX34 24X3| 2|X4 3X44 34X5* 4X6 5X7* 
No. of brick. . . 145 160 170 178 1S5 205 235 260 315 

Barrels of' ce¬ 
ment per 100 

lineal feet... 19 21 22 23 25 27 34 3S 41 


NUMBER OF BRICKS IN FLUSHTANK3. 
(With 12-inch walls.) 


Inside 

Diameter. 

Depths in Feet. 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

4 feet. 

1124 

1344 

1560 

1780 

2000 

5 feet. ....... 

1417 

1680 

1940 

2200 

2460 

6 feet. 

1820 

2440 

3060 

3680 

4300 


NUMBER OF BRICK IN MANHOLES—DEPTHS BELOW BOTTOM 

OF COVER. 


Diameter, 

Feet. 



Height 

in Feet. 



4 

5 

6 

7 

10 

12 

15 

20 

35 . 

677 

S35 

980 

1125 

1555 

1845 

2279 

3007 

4.0. 

740 

S80 

1030 

1180 

1625 

194S 

2410 

3180 

4.5.. • • 

830 

1040 

1190 

1370 

1910 

2270 

2826 

3730 


The above is only approximate as the sides of flushtanks and manholes 
have various tapers. 

Flushtanks, manholes, etc., will require about If barrels of cement per 
1000 brick. 











































236 


EXCAVATION TABLES. 


Angles of Slopes. 


Slopes ^ to 1 = 63°. 30' 
| to 1 = 53° 00' 
“ 1 to 1 = 45° 00' 

“ li to 1 = 38° 40' 
“ U to 1 = 33° 42' 


Slopes If to 1 = 29° 44' 
“ 2 to 1 = 26° 35' 

“ 3 to 1 = 18° 25' 

“ 4 to 1 = 14° 12' 


Quantity of Earths Equal to a Ton. 


Sand, river, as filled into carts. 21 cu. ft. 

Sand,pit, “ “ ,. 22 “ 

Gravel, coarse “ “ 23 “ 

Marl “ “ 28 11 

Clay, stiff “ “ 28 “ 

Chalk, lumps “ “ 29 " 

Earth, mould “ “ 33 “ 


Natural Slopes of Earths with Horizontal Line 


Gravel. 

Dry sand. 

Sand. 

Vegetable earth . . 
Compact earth . . , 

Shingle. 

Rubble. 

Clay, well drained 
Clay, wet. 


Average 40° 


( ( 
( i 
i i 


( ( 


38° 

22 ° 

28° 

50° 

39° 


“ 45° 


“ 45° 


“ 16° 


Weight of Earth, Rocks, Etc. 


Weight of cubic yard of 

sand . 

. about 30 cwt. 

u 

i i 

( i 

( i 

(( 

gravel . 

( ( 

30 “ 

11 

l ( 

i C 

( c 

C i 

mud . 

(c 

25 “ 

i l 

i i 

i c 

i ( 

c c 

marl . 

( ( 

26 “ 

{l 

( ( 

i l 

i ( 

(( 

clay . 

( c 

31 “ 

11 

4 ( 

c i 

(( 

(( 

chalk . 

( ( 

36 “ 

< ( 

( ( 

i < 

i i 

( c 

sandstone . 

11 

39 “ 

11 

i ( 

(i 

( i 

(( 

shale ...... 

(( 

40 “ 

11 

( ( 

i i 

(( 

(( 

quartz . . . . 

< ( 

41 “ 

i ( 

( i 

i l 

C i 

(( 

granite . . .. 

( c 

42 “ 

< < 

i i 

( c 

(( 

(( 

trap. 

11 

42 “ 

u 

ii 

c i 

Cl 

(( 

slate. 

i i 

43 " 




























EXCAVATION TABLES. 


237 


Cubical Contents of Trenches.— To find the cubical con¬ 
tents of a trench, in yards, multiply the length of the trench 
as follows: 


1 foot cross area of trench, 

2 feet cross area of trench, 

3 feet cross area of trench, 

4 feet cross area of trench, 

5 feet cross area of trench, 

6 feet cross area of trench, 

7 feet cross area of trench, 

8 feet cross area of trench, 

9 feet cross area of trench, 

10 feet cross area of trench, 

11 feet cross area of trench, 

12 feet cross area of trench, 


multiply the length by 0.037. 
multiply the length by 0.0741. 
multiply the length by 0.1111. 
multiply the length by 0.1481. 
multiply the length by 0.1851. 
multiply the length by 0.2222. 
multiply the length by 0.2952. 
multiply the length by 0.2692. 
multiply the length by 0.3333. 
multiply the length by 0.3703. 
multiply the length by 0.4078. 
multiply the length by 0.4444. 


To find the contents of larger trenches and excavations, 
see pages 238 to 243. 


CUBIC YARDS OF EARTH IN DITCHES WITH SIDE SLOPES OF 
ONE FOOT IN TEN. 


Depth in Feet. 


Bottom 


Width. 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

2 

feet.... 

.36 

.48 

.60 

.72 

.86 

.99 

1.15 

1.46 

1.80 

2.19 

2.59 

2.96 

2h 


.44 

.57 

.71 

.85 

1.01 

1.16 

1.33 

1.68 

2.06 

2.48 

2.92 

3.33 

3 


.51 

.66 

.82 

.98 

1.16 

1.33 

1.51 

1.90 

2.32 

2.80 

3.25 

3.70 



.59 

.76 

.93 

1.11 

1.30 

1.49 

1.70 

2.12 

2.58 

3.30 

3.58 

4.07 

4 


.66 

.84 

1.04 

1.24 

1.45 

1.66 

1.88 

2.34 

2.84 

3.40 

3.91 

4.44 

4i 


.74 

.94 

1.15 

1.37 

1.60 

1.83 

2.07 

2.57 

3.10 

3.70 

4.24 

4.81 

5 


.81 

1.04 

1.25 

1.50 

1.75 

2.00 

2.25 

2.80 

3.36 

4.00 

4.57 

5.18 


CUBIC YARDS TO EACH FOOT OF DEPTH OF VARIOUS 
EXCAVATIONS. 

The tables on pages 238 to 243 give the cubical contents 
in yards for each foot in depth of various excavations. 

' Example .—Find the number of yards in a cellar 24X40 feet, 
8 feet deep. On page 241 we find 40 in the column of length, 
then follow this line out to the column under 24, the width, 
where we find 35.5, or 35.5 cubic yards for each foot of depth. 
Multiplying this by 8, we have the cubical contents of the 
Cellar as 284 cubic yards. 





























NUMBER OF CUBIC YARDS IN AN EXCAVATION OR CELLAR TO EACH FOOT IN DEPTH.. 

From 2 X 6 to 16 X 35 . 

i Width in Feet. 


238 


EXCAVATION TABLES 




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EXCAVATION TABLES 


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COCO coco OCO COCO COCO t> CO CO I s - CO CO 


TfTT»OOCONOOGCO)OOrH(M<MCO^rf lOOONOOCOOJOOrHiMMCO 
r—1 r-H r-H r-H r-H r-H T-H r-H r-H rH r-H r-H *-H r-H r-H CM CM CM CM CM CM 


CO Hjl I s - CO 05 lO CO TT r— tH CO C5 tfD CO GO ^ T-. CO CO CO rf r-H Ttl 


CO't^OiOOONC0 0005 00rH-HC'lCOCOTt<iO»OONNCOGOOOOr-Cl 

r-Hr-Hr-Hr-Hr—ir-Hr—ir-Ht-Hr-ir-HT-Hr-ir— ir-Hr-nCMCMCMCM 


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NUMBER OF CUBIC YARDS IN AN EXCAVATION OR CELLAR TO EACH FOOT IN DEPTH— (Continued ). 

From 2X36 to 16X6h. 

I Width in Feet. I 


240 


EXCAVATION TABLES 


gUn i COCOCOCO'3<''S<''*rt<^TlittT}ir)iT}i»OiOlO‘C*O»CiO'O‘OiOCOCS;O?SeC>C0 
iJ c 


CO 05 tO CO 00 COCMOC^FCM'^r—CO CM CO rh lO^^.'OCCO 


iC*-«cCCMr^»COJO'''t 4 05»-0 Cri^C^X^ 


1 CO CM h- CO 00 1C —« 


O^NWNClN(NN<NXC0Xf0XW05^» lO^ChC»h-OhOh^ 


XXMXNNMNrH^rH*X)HO to to to too^oc^oGeoaoeo 


Tt« O0 CO I>-CO to 05 ^ oo CO *-« to to Tfi 05 CO 00 CM CD tOC5COC5 


CO ^XiMO^iOOTMxrHioOCSN^O GO CM O r# 00 CM r 


cor^ ^ CO CM tO 05 CM CO rti . 0 vO CM <*c rt< T- 


05 CM CO C5 CO <£> 


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CMCMCMCOCCtCO*^^ rt« O 'O *-C*> O O CO K 


CO O CO O CO o CO o 


CO 05 CM‘O' *-!-*• rw CO O 05 CM 10 00 —I CO <000CM 

O O ~h —« CM CM CO CO CO O •+’tiOOiCOOTONNN GO -3 CO CO 05 


CCOX-iCOOX’HXOOh^NOh^n CO to 00 CO to to CO K3 00 

05 05 C50000—'- J ’-H»-'CMCM<M^lCOCOCO'^'^f^^t*tO»0»OiOOOOO 


CM O GO COONO^^OX^CO>ON CM ** CO 30 CO *0 05 CM -<T« 

00 CO 00 00 OC 05 05 O O 05 O O O • i—. ^ iCMCMCMhNiCM-OCOCOcOC'O-t r* 


O CO CM CO rN* 05 ^ 3 -0 r >* -h CM CO O 00 CM -*< o I s - 05 *—» CO tO CO 00 

OOt>NNNNb.XXXXXOOCiC5 05COOOOO*-TH —< _i Jr 


CO >0 «S 00 OT —ItsI MS «> *S. CO CO O f'- 05 NfOlCOCOOX-NMiOffl 

•OiOiouSioooo'fflcoof^t^.’r^t^t^t^i^ooQoooooooooQoosrjjo'. osoi 


rH<Mco^iflOh.ooa HMco-^ioosoi »-< cm re»o <ra co o -km 

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00 COOT r^-^r^cOTtt^io.otOl-OCOT i-<-.fMc0O5'^iO-X>CCt^00 

i^CMCMOTCMOOCOCOcOCOOOCO,OOCOCOeOcOXi^^rt'Tj<^« 5 ; rh ^' T) .' Tt ,^.^ 


CO CO CO W ^ Tt< TH rf ^ Tji <* r* Tt( 10 »01010 iQ 10 »010 $ S § P CO (0 co S 














































EXCAVATION TABLES. 


241 


E 

H 

P 

W 

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0 > _ 
p £3 


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I :'OfC(.'OM'«t'^' , !t'^'’JiT)iTyi^’^i^noiO l OiC‘OiO«5‘0‘O l COCC | ®CD?0?0 


*-iC'3CO-'3 , *0'.Ct^OC03 — N M rt* O to N O) — <MCO*cfvDcpt'-00 03.-<01 

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»0 vO OuJOOOOiDSOOtO^COOCtCt'N 


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I coro-'j , -3'vovovocococ0t'.0'-t>.ooo0oc0303 


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■Q +3 

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n CO TO « ^ *”* <* ^ *• * ^ "* ^ *0 *0 *0 *0 «0 *0 »$ *0 *Q *Q '0 C5 «0 © « O 












































NUMBER OF CUBIC YARDS IN AN EXCAVATION OR CELLAR TO EACH FOOT IN DEPTH— (Continued). 

I 1 rom 3lX3b to 40Xbb. 

Width in Feet. 

Length , i i i i i i 7 7 Length 


242 


EXCAVATION TABLES 


<d 

<D 




o 


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M^IcOr>»OiO<NfO-0 0'X)05i-HNrti»O.^CiOO^(M^tOr>iOOO«^O^tO 
•O «0 > 0*00 J'DO O r- l- r- r- l^. JO 00 CO CO cjO 00 CC 05 05 Oi O Oi 


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« > • •• « • .!» • ' 
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< 


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to 0*0 OiOiOOOOOO^O'-CNP-L-t^NNt^OOOOOOCJOXXJXGOi 


C0t s ---»0 05C^O ^ ‘O ^ W O X W O CO r- —■^ O W O 05 W O 

. . ..... 

CO OiOW^Of ONCJO^W^iONXOH-M^iOOXOiOW^^ONOJ 

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COCOCOCO ^^^^^<5flTl*^^^iO4£iOtO*Q*Q*OiO*O*OCD^DC0C0QPCO 








































NUMBER OF CUBIC YARDS IN AN EXCAVATION OR CELLAR TO EACH\ FOOT IN DEPTH—( Continued"). 

From 41 X 36 to 50 X 65 


EXCAVATION TABLES. 


243 


S3 J> 

■4-3 CD 
bo <D 

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N COMlM CONOiOCOr^OOOrtio QC r« *0: rt< C^l ^ 05 00 GO tO CO 

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BNBM -- V^a MM ‘ 


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0 0*>DM>M>.I>.r^ooX(X)OOOir;O s .OlO;005 00 0000 r- — 

__ - _ - - — - - - — 1 ■ 


<30 


00*0Wr-.00O^(N05Ni0e0 C0«5(NH CO»OCOT^OOCC^OlOiNiO 

■**ior>.05—<c^-*rt«<o>ooo5*—'cotoi^-ooo<M'*+ , ccr s ^05i—•eo^ , cocoo«—'C'Oto 

OOcDCM>.NNNNCiOXOOXOOO)0)Ol050JaiOOOOOi-rHH»H 


CD 

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£ 


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r° 

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cm go 05 - 

O O GO O CO t' 


CO rt - CO CO O —' co >o r ^o GO O Cl «o N c: r-< (M tr N cr, ^ Cl 
NNNt>.00XG0G)0X00a0)a)0505OOOOCCO^^ 


CO^t^'r**-^OOtO<M05GOCO N^^XCOM N^HCOlNMaOC’j 

^CO^OXCi’Hn^cOCOOrHCOiOOCOOfMCOrONfCOClCCiCNgpO 
CCDOCOOCL.NNNNXXXXXX05 05G05 0'.05 000 CCOh 


1C 

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N CO. 05 O CO COCONCCCJO'-OPOOOCO t^-CO t^C005G£CC05iCC0 

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CO GO GO CO GO CO t — I.NNNNNQC'OC 0000X050505050050500000 


r^. ^C5iCC<300iO»-Ht-COC5iOCXlC5iO’—»t^CO OCMCCiO^-f^-CO ic C5 

r .•■••••• .-••-• • • * • • * • 
TOHC0 iC*O00 O'-'C0^^00 05»HC0^CO00 05^(NTt']CNa^Ol^»0 
cOOOOOOCNNNNNh*U*XXXXXX0505050iO>0'-OCC 


CO 

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CO C<J !>• CC* 00 tO f"» C' 1 I s *- *0 


to*-* it'-C005iO^GO<MCO'^ O ’— r O CO 

N05O(MC0 , 0C0DO^HC0'»fOG0C5«M^O^05O0100»2Ny)Cr : HC0 

tO »0 GO CO CO GO CO CO N l>- t>- !>• GO GO GO GO GO --O 05 05 05 05 05 05 O O O 




OrHOMNCOOcO to »-< GO — 1^-COOiiO O^cO CO CO 05 rf iO»—« 

ON050ci^'0*^COOr-COTfiONoio^^»ONCCO^CO^CC005rH 

•O lO »C O O O O C O !>• I s - U*- U- t^- 00 GO GO 00 00 GO 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 O 


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t^05l^-05I^.^Or^COOCCOGOCOOOCOC0^05iO *C ‘0 05*0 cOt-4CO«-h 

T^Oh-a50'HCOiOOX05^C\iTrior^CCO(MCOiO^N^^Clt!;'ONGO 

vO *0 iO »0 GO GO GO GO CO GO GO !"• I> I s * f>. 00 GO 00 00 CO 00 05 05 05 05 05 05 


o^oc corner) 05 0 ^ wco^^co^cooOjhww^jjo 












































PART V 


CEMENT BUILDING BLOCKS, MATERIALS 
AND MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT 
BLOCKS, MANUFACTURE AND USE OF 
SPECIAL BLOCKS, MAKING AND USING 
SPECIAL MOULDS, CASTING CEMENT 
STONE OR BLOCKS, SPECIFICATIONS FOR 
BLOCKS, BUILDING REGULATIONS FOR 
USE OF BLOCKS, TESTS OF BUILDING 
BLOCKS. 


Cement Building-blocks. —There are two processes of 
making cement building-blocks, which are known as the “dry” 
process and the “wet” process. With the wet process the 
cement mixture is made thin enough to be poured or puddled 
into the mould, and then let stand until the cement has set and 
the moulds can be removed. This process requires a number 
of moulds, as it takes several hours for the cement to set hard 
enough so the moulds can be removed from the block. 

With the “dry” process the mixture is given just enough 
water to give it the consistency of damp earth, and which 
when tamped into place will stand up when the moulds are 
removed. In this process the block after being moulded is 
carried away on a pallet and another block is formed, thus 
using the same moulds over and over continuously. 

Either process results in good work when done correctly, 
but for a water-proof block the author prefers the use of what 
might be termed a “medium wet” mixture, one that requires 

244 





CEMENT BUILDING-BLOCKS. 245 

tamping into place, but from which with care the moulds can 
be removed as soon as the block is made. 

Regarding the making of blocks the following extract is 
taken from an article in a recent issue of Cement Age, by S. B. 
Newberry, manager, Sandusky Portland Cement Co.: 

“It is well known that a concrete mixed fairly wet is far 
better than one made too dry. This difference is, however, 
not due to lack in the dry concrete of moisture required for the 
crystallization of the cement. This quantity is extremely 
small, and amounts to not more than 3 per cent of the weight 
of a 1 to 5 mixture. Even the dryest damp-tamped block 
mixture contains much more water than this. The effect of 
_adiberal supply of water is to cause the mixture to settle together 
and become dense, in the same way as loose filled ground is 
compacted by flooding it with a hose-stream. If made too 
dry, concrete will ahvays be loose, porous and crumbling, and 
no amount of subsequent sprinkling or soaking will help matters. 
Now, it requires less labor to make blocks from a rather dry 
mixture than from a sufficiently wet one, and more blocks per 
day can be turned out, per man and per machine, if the propor¬ 
tion of water is kept low. It is no wonder, therefore, that block- 
makers turn out poor stuff unless checked by tests of product 
or shown the error of their ways. Nevertheless, it is perfectly 
possible to use enough water to make the mass thoroughly plastic 
and yield concrete of the highest quality and strength, and still 
to remove the blocks at once from the machine. Left to themselves, 
the workers will always make the blocks too dry; it is merely 
a question of intelligent and careful supervision, ,4 s much 
water must be used as possible without causing the blocks to stick 
to the plates or sag out of shape on removing from the machine. 
If block-makers will conscientiously try this they will be sur¬ 
prised to find how wet a mixture can successfully be used, 
and how greatly the quality of their work is improved thereby. 

“Many attempts have been made to produce hollow blocks 
by pouring semi-liquid concrete into a separable mould, in which 
it was allowed to harden for twenty-four hours or longer before 
removal. Very strong blocks are obtained in this way, though 
no better than by the damp-tamping process if correctly con¬ 
ducted. The poured blocks have one great drawback, however, 
and that is their ugliness. In all concrete made very wet, a 
film of neat cement is formed on the surface, which gives the 
work a lifeless look and is liable to show hair-cracks and.light 


246 


CEMENT BUILDING-BLOCKS. 


streaks and patches. Damp-tamped work, on the other hand^ 
if properly made, shows a granular sandy surface and uniform 
color. The damp-tamping process, therefore, is far superior 
to wet process in economy and beauty of product, and with 
proper care can be made fully equal in strength. There is no 
difficulty in obtaining at twenty-eight days a crushing strength 
of 2000 pounds per square inch, using a 1 to 5 mixture of cement, 
sand, and coarse gravel, and removing the blocks from the 
machine as fast as made. ,, 

Objections to Concrete Blocks.— The main objection to 
concrete blocks has been the similarity of the blocks used. 
The various machines not having a sufficient variety of moulds 
and producing a number of blocks exactly alike for use in the 
same building. 

The majority of blocks used are what is known as ‘‘rock 
face,” and in a building there will often be but two or three 
different faces used. 

This block work is an imitation of stonework, but in a stone 
building of “rock face” work, no two stones can be found with 
“faces” alike. 

In a paper presented before the National Association of 
Concrete Users, 1907, A. O. Elzner, said: 

“At present the tendency in the manufacture of these blocks 
is to imitate split faces of stone ashlar. This is radically wrong 
in principle and should not be tolerated. A flat, smooth face 
will always look well. However, if a pitched or split face is 
desired, let it be produced by casting the block flat and then 
pitching off the face with chisel and hammer, just as is done 
with stone. The clean fracture of the concrete thus exposed 
will be eminently effective and artistic and will have all the 
merit that belongs to truthfulness. Plain concrete ashlar walls 
might in some cases be effectively relieved by the introduction 
of bands of decorated blocks with some simple ornament moulded 
in the face, very much as is done with terra-cotta, but by all 
means avoid moulded rock-faced work. It is artistically bad. 
The frequent and constant repetition of a few regular sizes 
and patterns, ruins an effect which should be counted largely 
as accidental but always expressive of a fine artistic sense in 
the selection and grouping of the individual blocks. Arti¬ 
ficiality, imitation and misrepresentation are stamped all over 
such work and can be recognized at first glance.” 

To overcome this objection of similarity use a number of 



CEMENT BUILDING-BLOCKS. 


247 


designs and make a variety of “faces” for each size block. 
Also have moulds or be able to make them to produce any 
shape or size blocks an architect drawing may call for. Do 
not expect the architect to design his building to lit your blocks, 
but make your blocks to conform to his size and drawings, 
the same as the stone-cutter cuts his stone to conform to the 
architect’s drawing. 

S. B. Newberry, in Cement Age, recently said: “Much of the 
discredit and opposition which concrete blocks have encoun¬ 
tered has been due to the feeling that they are a sham and an 
imitation. This is of course repugnant to all who hold the 
belief expressed in the last lines of Keats’ “Ode on a Grecian 



“ * Beauty is truth, truth beauty, that is all 
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.’ 


* ‘ So long as the imitation of stone by concrete consists only of 
similarity in texture and color, no fault can be found with it. 
Concrete consisting of grains of sand and gravel or fragments 
of crystalline limestone, joined together by cement, must neces¬ 
sarily look like stone, because it is stone, and made up of stony 
materials. But when we imitate in our blocks the irregularly 
fractured surface of quarried rock, and worse still, make a 
multitude of suck blocks from a single mould, we are commit¬ 
ting a fraud, and one so transparent as to be detected at a 
glance by all but the most unobserving. It is no wonder that 
architects despise the rock-faced cement-block; the surprising 
thing is that the public has endured it so long.” 

Rock-faced blocks can be made by making blocks with a 
face of sand and cement about inches thick, and after the 
blocks are two or three days old, take a stone-cutters’ “pitch¬ 
ing” tool and put on a rock-face the same as putting a rock- 
face on a stone. This will give the blocks the appearance of 
stone and no two will be alike. 

Aggregate. —The aggregate for making cement blocks can 
be either broken stone, gravel, or slag, or a combination of 
any of these; that which can be obtained the cheapest should 
of course be used. 

If broken stone is used it should be broken to pass a 1-inch 
mesh screen, and if gravel, it should be screened through a 
screen of this size. 

If the broken stone contains much dust it should be run 
over a small mesh screen to take out this dust. Or another 


248 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE OF BLOCKS. 


method is to wash out the dust. This can be done by putting 
a bottom of sieve wire in a barrel, then filling the barrel with 
the stone and running water through the stone, letting it run 
out through the sieve end, thus washing out all dust and dirt. 

If the gravel to be used contains much clay or earthy matter 
it should be washed as described to take out all dirt. 

Crushed slag is also used to some extent as an aggregate 
for making cement blocks. It should be well seasoned, as 
fresh slag is more susceptible to the effects of heat and cold 
as regards expansion and contraction than it is after it has 
attained some age and is well seasoned. If containing much 
dust it should be washed. 

Slag being light in color, and lighter in weight than stone or 
gravel, it produces a block both light in color and in weight. 

Sand.—The sand for concrete blocks should be such as 
described on page 48. When a special mixture is to be used 
for the face of the block the sand for this mixture should be 
selected and can be finer than that used in the body of the 
block. 

That for the face must be perfectly clean, and if not so should 
be washed before being used. 

The sand for the body of the block may contain 5 per cent 
of clay, and which will not affect the strength of the block, 
but any earthy or vegetable matter should be washed out, as 
it will cause a weak block. 

Wet sand should not be used, as it causes the cement to 
form into smalls and starts its set during the dry mixing. 

Slag which has been pulverized by turning water on it while 
hot, has been used recently as a sand for making cement blocks, 
and as far as used, has given good results. It makes a block 
of a very light color when used with a light colored cement. 

Sand and gravel combined, as it comes from the pit or river 
bed, is often used for making blocks. This is poor policy, for 
the sand and gravel is not distributed uniformly in the pit or 
bed, nor is it in the correct proportions. If used in this way, 
some blocks would have too much sand and some not enough, 
or one would have too much gravel and another not enough, 
as the case would be. 

When the sand and gravel is obtained from the same pit 
or bed they should first be separated by screening, and then 
remixed in the proportions desired. This will make a uniform 
mixture, and can be obtained in no other way. 


MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE OF BLOCKS. 249» 


The 41 i\ til re. —The proportions for making the mixture for 
blocks will depend on the strength desired and the materials used. 

To make a good dense block there must be enough cement 
used to fill the voids of the sand, and enough of sand and cement 
to fill the voids in the aggregate. 

When the entire block is made of sand and cement, 1 part 
cement and 4 parts sand will make a good block. 

When an aggregate is used, the mixture should be 1 part 
cement, 3 parts sand, and 5 parts of the aggregate; this will 
make a strong and nearly water-proof block. 

Mixing. — When the amount of work to be done will justify 
the first expense, a power mixer should be purchased, and which 
will prove cheapest in the end, and will also be the most con¬ 
venient method of mixing. 

“The materials used should be-carefully measured, so as to 
have the different “batches'' of concrete of the same propor¬ 
tions and strength. 

In machine mixing the proportions of cement, sand, and 
aggregate should be mixed thoroughly while dry, or until the 
mixture shows a uniform color, then the water should be added 
in just sufficient quantity to make a soft plastic mixture, which 
will tamp readily in the moulds, but will stand up when the 
moulds are carefully removed. 

When the mixing is done by hand with shovels or hoes, it 
should be done on a water-tight platform, which should have 
a rim around it to keep the mixture from running off. 

The sand and cement should be mixed dry and then water 
added to make a mortar of the consistency described above, 
then the aggregate, whieh should be wet, should be added, and 
the whole mass thoroughly mixed, until each and every piece of 
the aggregate is covered with a coat of the mortar, and the mortar 
and the aggregate are distributed uniformly through the mass. 

When blocks are made without any large aggregate the 
mixing can be done in a box as follows: 

The sand should be measured and put into the box in a 
uniform layer, the cement should then be measured and spread 
evenly over the sand. Now with a hoe turn the mixture to 
the end of the box and back several times, until it becomes of 
a uniform color. Add the water and mix thoroughly by turn¬ 
ing the mass over and over several times. Use as much water 
as possible without causing the block to fall down after being 
moulded, or causing it to stick to the moulds. 




250 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE OF BLOCKS. 


Coloring Blocks. —Various shades and colors can be ob¬ 
tained by the use of different cements and different colors of 
sand. For instance, a blue cement and light colored sand will 
produce a light blue block. 

It is a good idea for any person in the cement block business 
to keep on hand a sample block of each color he can make 
with the various cements. With these to select from it is 
very easy then for a customer to select the color he desires. 

For coloring blocks with coloring materials, use those given 
on page 78. 

In coloring the blocks the wet mixture should be colored 
several shades darker that the color desired in the finished 
block, as the wet mortar looks darker and brighter to the eye 
(owing to the gloss of the water) than it really is. 

Cement blocks should not be made too dark, as this is con¬ 
trary to nature; all natural stones being of a rather light color. 

In mixing the coloring material, mix the sand, cement, and 
coloring material dry, until the mass becomes a uniform color, 
then add the water. 

Making the Block. —When the moulds are prepared, and the 
concrete or mortar mixed as previously explained, put in the 
moulds a layer of the mixture about 3 inches deep and tamp 
thoroughly, then put in another layer and tamp again, re¬ 
peating the operation until the mould is full and the block 
completed. 

To make the blocks the same consistency throughout, the 
tamping must be thorough, and all parts tamped uniformly, 
so that all parts of the block will be of the same solidity and 
denseness. 

The mixture should be tamped until the water comes to the 
top and all particles made compact, with no voids or air spaces. 

The tamping should be done with light quick blows, as a 
number of light blows will pack more thoroughly than a few 
heavy ones. 

When the blocks are made face down and a special mixture 
is used for the face, this mixture should be put in the mould 
of the thickness desired and tamped before the body" mixture 
is put in. 

When made the block should be carefully removed from the 
mould and set away to season. 

Curing Cement Building Blocks. —Curing or seasoning 
the blocks is done by keeping the freshly made block wet for 


MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE OF BLOCKS. 251 


several days after being made, so as to give moisture enough 
to cause correct crystallization of the cement. 

The blocks as soon as made should be put in a shed or some 
protected place and kept thoroughly wet with water for several 
days. 

As soon as the blocks are hard enough, which will be in eight 
or ten hours after being made, they should be sprinkled thor¬ 
oughly, and this should be repeated twice each day for about 
a week, or if a curing shed is used and made tight, steam can be 
used for curing the blocks by filling the room with steam; 
the blocks will absorb the moisture. 

When sprinkling blocks great care should be exercised not 
to wash or disfigure the arrises or corners of the blocks, and to 
'preserve as sharp an outline as possible on all relief work. 

The blocks while curing should be protected from all draughts 
of aif, and also from the sun’s rays, 'which would cause them 
to dry too fast. If the blocks are being cured in the open air 
they should be kept covered with wet burlap to protect them 
and to hold the moisture. 

Care of Machine and Molds. —At the close of each 
day’s work the machine, moulds, and all tools should be 
washed clean and put in place for commencing the next day’s 
work. 

The moulds should be wiped dry and then wiped with a piece 
of waste saturated with crude oil. This will prevent them 
from rusting, and also keep the newly-made block from stick¬ 
ing to the moulds. 

At intervals, the entire machine should be cleaned of all 
dirt, mortar, etc., and wiped with the oil waste. 

All gearing mechanism, working joints, etc., should be pro¬ 
tected from falling mortar and dirt. When possible these 
parts should be covered with a piece of leather, canvass, or tin. 
This will keep the machine in better working order and prolong 
its life. 

All joints and working parts should be oiled in the morning 
before starting work. 

Lubricating the Molds. —To prevent the moulds from 
sticking to the block, keep the moulds clean and free from 
rust; wipe the face of them at night with oil waste, and brush 
frequently with oil while in use. Or, a wash made of soap 
dissolved in water can be brushed on the face of the mould 
just before filling with concrete. 


252 MANUFACTURE-AND USE OF SPECIAL BLOCKS. 

A solution of paraffin and gasoline applied to the moulds 
will also prevent them from sticking. 

Laying Cement Blocks.—The mortar for laying cement 
blocks should be composed of 1 part Portland cement and 
3 parts fine sharp sand, to which can be added a little lime 
putty, or hydrated lime, to render the mortar less brittle 
and cause it to work “smooth.” The lime putty should be 
made several days before being required for use, so all particles 
of lime will be slaked. 

The mortar can be colored if desired, as explained on page 

78. 1 

The blocks before being set in the wall should be wet, espe¬ 
cially in hot, dry weather, so the dry block will not absorb 
all the moisture from the mortar, thus causing it to dry too 
fast and rendering it weak. 

The mortar should be spread so as to give a uniform joint of 
about l inch, and all perpendicular joints should be filled 
carefully with mortar. The joints can either be pointed as 
the work progresses, or they can be raked out about f inch 
deep when the blocks are set, and after the walls are com¬ 
pleted the entire work can then be washed down and the joints 
pointed. 

A neat job of pointing adds much to the appearance of any 
wall, either stone or cement blocks. 

Carrying Joist on Block Walls. —When building walls 
of cement blocks, provision must be 
made to carry the floor joists of the 
building. 

Fig. 149 shows a method that has 
been used. Pockets are cast in the 
blocks and the joists inserted as shown. 
The ends of the joists should be cut 
to a bevel so they will readily be re¬ 
leased and drop out in case of fire 
burning them off'at one end. 

Fig. 150 shows the joist supported by 
a wrought-iron joist hanger, several 
makes of which areon the market. 

Fig. 151 shows a block with a box anchor cast in the 
block. 

This is the Goetz joist box or anchor, and provides a pocket 



Fig. 149.—Block with 
Pocket for Joi3t. 























MANUFACTURE AND USE OF SPECIAL BLOCKS. 253 


for the joist and also anchors it to the wall as the joist is 
notched over a lug in the bottom of the box. 



Fig. 150.—Use of Joist Hanger with Concrete Blocks. 



Fig. 151.—Joist Anchor Cast in Concrete Block. 


Fastening Frames in Concrete Walls— When making 
jamb-blocks or when building concrete walls around openings, 
provision must be made for securing the frame, nailing up 
the trim, etc. 

Fig. 152 shows how blocks can be made for around window 
openings. Bolts can be put in the blocks as shown, when the 
blocks are. made, letting the bolts project out far enough to 
receive and. bolt fast the rough jamb as shown. If it is a solid 





























254 MANUFACTURE AND USE OF SPECiAL BLOCKS. 


concrete wall the form must be made of the shape shown, and 
the bolts put in place as the concrete is deposited. Ordinary 
i"X6" carriage bolts are the best bolts to use. 



Fig. 152.—Method of Fastening Window Frames in Concrete Construction. 


The frame and trim is anchored and nailed to the rough 
jamb as indicated. 

If the bolts are not cast in the blocks when made they can be 
put in the joints as the blocks are set in place. 



Fig. 153.— Wood Jamb Fastened with Bolts. 


Figs. 153 and 154 show how a rough or false wood jamb 
can be bolted to a brick or concrete jamb and the door jamb 
and trim can then be nailed securely to the false jamb. By 






























MAKING AND USING SPECIAL MOULD. 255 


toe-nailing the nails can nearly all be concealed. The bolts 
must be put in place as the walls are built. 



Fig. 154.—Wood Jamb Fastened with Bolts. 


Special Nailing Blocks. —For nailing purposes, such as 
nailing base, trim, etc., cement blocks can be made with a 
dove-tail wooden block cast in the cement block, similar to 
the method of casting the anchor in the block as shown by 
Fig. 151, page 253. 

If granulated furnace slag is used in place of sand for making 
the block nails can be driven in the block and will hold very 
well. 

Special Moulds for Ornamental Cement Work. —The 

cement-block manufacturer should be able to make special 



1 

mm 

m 



Fig. 155.—Sheet Metal Stamped Rock-face. 


moulds to meet the requirements of the drawings of various 
architects, so that he will be able to produce any style or shape 
block desired by the architect. 



































256 MAKING AND USING SPECIAL MOULDS. 


For making special moulds for rock-face work sheets of 
stamped metal in imitation of rock-face, such as shown by 



Fig. 156.—Continuous Rock-face in Sheet Metal. 

Figs. 155 and 156, can be procured at little cost from any 
stamped metal manufacturer. This metal can be procured 



Fig. 157. 


Fig. 158. 

Sheet Metal Forms for Piers, etc. 


Fig.159. 


in blocks of various sizes, and also in long lengths of 5 to 8 
feet and of widths from 6 to 12 inches. 




























MAKING AND USING SPECIAL MOULDS. 257 




Similar stamped shapes can also be procured for use in 
making blocks for piers, porch columns, etc., as shown by 
Figs. 157-159. 


Fig. 161.—Sheet Metal Moulds for Belts, Cornices, etc. 

Steps with nosing and bed-mould, as shown by Fig. 160, 
can be moulded in sheet metal forms which can be procured 
at a nominal cost. 

Sheet metal bent and stamped to designs, such as shown 


Fig. 160.—Step with Nosing. 




























258 MAKING AND USING SPECIAL MOULDS. 


by Fig- 161, can be procured for moulding blocks for belt 
courses, cornices, etc. These metal shapes can be bought in 





Fig. 162.— Stamped Metal Panels and Frieze. 



lengths up to 8 feet, and in them the blocks can be made any 
length desired. 

Straight mouldings can also be run with a mould, similar to 
































MAKING AND USING SPECIAL MOULDS. 259 


the method shown by Fig. 163. The moulding being run in 
long lengths and then jointed and cut while green into the 
lengths desired. 

Stamped or spun circle mouldings can also be procured in 
sheet metal, and which makes good moulds for bases or tops 
of columns, etc. 

Spurn ballusters can be cut apart and used for moulds for 
m a king cement ballusters, and for ornamental panels, friezes, 
etc., there is a variety of designs made in stamped metal, such 
as shown in Fig. 162, which makes very good moulds for orna¬ 
mental cement work. 

Circle mouldings can also be run with a mould, as shown 
by Fig. 163. The mould is set up to the desired radius, the 
moulding run, and then cut into the lengths desired- 

Glue or Gelatine Moulds, — Elaborate designs can be re¬ 
produced in cement- by casting in glue moulds. The glue is 
prepared as explained on page 397, or steep about 12 pounds 
of glue over night and then heat until it is a fluid, and then 
add about 3 pounds of molasses well mixed in by stirring. 

Oil the model or pattern so the glue will not stick, put it 
in a vessel or box large enough, so the top of the pattern will 
be below the top of the box and then pour in the glue mixture 
until the pattern is entirely covered. 

When cold take the entire mass from the box and take the 
mould from around the pattern by cutting the mould into 
several pieces. 

The glue should then be oiled to prevent sticking and the 
different pieces put in place and an opening cut through which 
to pour the cement; after being put in place in the box the 
interior of the mould can then be run full of cement, thus re¬ 
producing in cement the design and shape of the original. 

To prevent wet cement from dissolving the glue mould give 
the mould a coat of a solution of 1 part bichromate of potash 
and 10 parts water. This will harden the face of the mould 
so the wet cement will not affect it, but the glue thus hardened 
cannot be remelted again. 

Several coats of paraffin oil will also render the glue mould 
waterproof. 

Another method is to coat the moulds with a solution of alum 
and water, as much alum as the water will dissolve. 

If the original pattern for making a glue mould is of plaster 
of Paris or cement it should be given several coats of shellac 



260 MAKING AND USING SPECIAL MOULDS. 


before the glue is poured on it, to prevent the glue from stick¬ 
ing to the model. 

Rubber Moulds. —Rubber moulds have been made and 
used to some little extent for making ornamental blocks, and 
give very good results, but are quite expensive. 

A block with a corrugated face, as shown by Fig. 164, can 
be made by using the corrugated rubber matting that can 
be bought in nearly any furniture store, for a face mould 
Various designs in this rubber can be purchased, such as dia¬ 
monds, squares, etc. The rubber matting is cut to the desired 



Fig. 164.—Block Faced with Rubber Mould. 


shape and put against a plain face mould for the face of the 
block, and the block is then made in the usual way. 

When the moulds are taken from around the block the rubber 
can then be peeled off, leaving the face as shown. 

Paper Moulds. —Stamped patterns in papier mach6, lin- 
crusta, etc., when coated with shellac, can be used in the same 
manner as described above, and very neat designs can be re¬ 
produced. 

Brass and Glass Moulds. —Brass and glass moulds are 
now being manufactured and sold, and are very easy manipu¬ 
lated, their surface being so smooth the blocks do not stick. 

Casting Cement Stone or Blocks. — Artificial stone¬ 
making, or making artificial stone by casting in moistened 
sand, is described by W. P. Butler, who invented this process, 
as follows: 

“Opening Casting. —The first step in the process is to 
make a wooden pattern of the stone to be made. This pattern 
or model is made of the exact size of the stone desired, and 
it may be made in one or in several pieces. The size and style 










































































CASTING CEMENT STONE OR BLOCKS. . 261 

of the block usually determines the method to use in the cast¬ 
ing of it. 

; “The most common method of casting is that of casting 
on the floor, or ‘open casting,’ as it is commonly called. Nearly 
all large stones as well as small ones are cast this way. The 
method is illustrated in Fig. 165, where the moulding com¬ 
pound is shown as spread out upon the floor. The pattern 
is imbedded solidly upon the compound (which for brevity 
we will call the sand) which is then packed solidly around it 
and built up until it is fully imbedded in the same manner 
that a pattern is set in the sand in a foundry. To remove the 
pattern irom the sand it should be lightly tapped, so as to 
^Ibosen it without noticeably enlarging the mould, from which 
it should then be withdrawn with the greatest care so as not 
' to break down the edges. 

“If, on examination, the surfaces of the mould are not per¬ 
fectly smooth, or if any edge is broken down, or if any detail 


. pattern 


' in place 







£ 





Floor 


Fia. 165.—Open Casting on Floor. 


is imperfect or damaged, it may be ‘t'ouched up’ or repaired 
with the moulder’s tools which it is necessary to have. 

“One perfect mould having been made, as many others as 
are desired can be made in like manner from the same pattern. 
A competent moulder can make from five to fifty moulds in a 
day, acocrding to the difficulty or size of each. If the pattern 
has no projecting parts which would prevent its being with¬ 
drawn from the sand, it may best be made in one piece, but 
if there are projecting details or undercuts on the pattern, then 
it must be made in two or more pieces so as to make it possible 
to withdraw it from the sand without breaking down the mould. 
This necessitates not only good workmanship on the part of 
the patternmaker, but a thorough knowledge on his part of the 
necessities of the moulding process. 

“The removal from the sand of a pattern of two or more 
pieces is done in the same manner as though there was but 
one piece, but it requires more time and care. 

“In Fig. 166 there is shown a three-piece pattern imbedded 












262 CASTING CEMENT STONE OR BLOCKS. 


in the sand at A. At B the main part of the pattern and one 
of the side pieces is shown as withdrawn, while one side piece 
is 5 still in the sand. The cast of the block is shown at C. 

“Compartment Casting. —If the block to be cast is for a 
cornice, belt-course, water-table, or any similar purpose where 
there is an ornamental or moulded face, with the other sides 



Fig. 166. —Removing Patterns in Open Casting. 


plain, a better and more rapid method of casting is to fasten 
two planks on edge, and parallel with each other, as shown 
at AA in the following Fig. 167, with partitions, P, fastened 
between the planks at proper distances, forming a series of 
compartments in each of which is to be cast a stone. The 



I A i 

l 

1, 

iyjfffl 

Mol ^Js.u,<i pagSpLcil 

1 .-- 

\ VERTICAL 
\ SECTION 

n 

’i 

n 

L 

Floor 



i —. 

A A * 

! 

; 

i 


| | 

Pattern 

1 1 

if 

Mold j| ” 

. 

TOP VIEW I 


i 

A Plank on Edere 

- 7T* 



Fig. 167.—Casting in Compartments. 


length of the pattern or distance between the planks A is made 
to equal the length of the block. 

“The pattern in this case need be only the face of the block 
which is adjusted within the compartment at such a distance 
from the partition back of it as to give the pioper width to the 
block. Then in the space in front of the pattern, solidly tamp 
the sand, as shown in the drawing at 1. 












































CASTING CEMENT STONE OR BLOCKS. 263 


“Next loosen the pattern and draw it away from the sand, 
which retains the design of the face, which is shown at 2. This 
process is repeated in the several compartments, and the 
moulds are then filled as at 3. By this method a minimum 
of time is required and blocks are formed much more rapidly 
than when moulded in a bed of material on the floor. 

“Casting in Open-end Flasks. —The method of casting 
illustrated by Fig. 168 will prove to be the best in many cases, 
especially where it is desired to pack the moulding compound 
vertically on the face of the pattern. In this figure A represents, 
in section, a box or collapsible ‘ flask’ open at the top and bottom. 
Within the flask and at the proper distance from the bottom 
-Ts fastened the pattern or face-plate B. 

“Over and upon the top of the pattern tamp the sand, as 
shown at E, and then fasten over this the cover C to hold the 


Pattern 



Fig. 168.—Casting in Open-end Flasks. 


sand in position while the flask is being turned over, as shown 
at F. Next loosen and remove the pattern as shown, leaving 
the mould ready for the cast as shown at G, wherein the face 
of the block alone is in the sand., When the cement is hardened 
the flask is loosened and removed. 

“Casting in Closed Flasks. —Many pieces, such as balus¬ 
ters, balls, or similar turned forms, or forms which are sym¬ 
metrical on all sides, must be cast in closed boxes or flasks, 
as shown in Fig. 169. 

“The pattern of the baluster is, in the case shown, made in 
two pieces which are imbedded in the lower and upper halves 
of the flask.* The patterns are then withdrawn and the two 
halves of the flask are carefully locked together in the position 

* Spun metal balusters or stamped metal ornaments make good pat¬ 
terns for making the mould, and one pattern will make any number of 
moulds.— Author. 
























264 


CASTING CEMENT STONE OR BLOCKS. 


shown at C. The cast is then made by pouring the liquid cement 
through the opening in the end of the flask. A great variety 
of the finest ornamental work is cast in this manner. There 
are other special methods of casting cement stone, but the ones 
ilfustrated are those most commonly used in ordinary practice. 

“In all cases the cement and powdered stone, in the pro¬ 
portions of one of cement to three of stone dust, are mixed 
with water until of the consistency of thick gravy, and then 
carefully poured into the mould, using a pouring board or 
pipe to guide the stream and prevent its tearing the sand up. 
The mass is then allowed to set and harden for about a week 
before it is removed from the mould. This protection of the 
cement in the moistened mould prevents the cracking or check¬ 
ing of the surface. When the stone is fully dried out the surface 



is brushed off with a wire brush to remove the surplus sand, 
and, if a tooled appearance is desired, the surface can be gone 
over with tools and then the block cannot be distinguished 
from one carved from the natural stone.” 

Pouring the Cement. —The mould or series of moulds 
having been prepared, the stone-making material should be 
mixed of proper proportions and consistency for pouring and 
should then be kept agitated or stirred so as to keep it uniform 
until it is poured into the moulds. The mixture should not 
be allowed to stand for over 15 or 20 minutes before being 
used, nor should the moulds remain unfilled any longer than is 
necessary, as they dry out and become more fragile. 

The process of pouring requires much care and expedition 
in order to produce the best results. If the cement is to be 
poured over the face of the mould it should not be poured 
directly on the sand but on to a thin “pouring board,” which 












































CASTING CEMENT STONE OR BLOCKS. 


265 


is used to break the force of the falling stream of cement, to 
distribute it more gently over the face of the mould, and to 
prevent the tearing up or breaking down of the sand. 

The board should be held and guided by the one in charge 
of the casting, while others bring and pour the cement. Here 
again care must be used, for in the pouring there must be 
no interruption in the flow of material. One pail-carrier (if 
the pouring is done from pails) must begin to pour as soon 
as the former one has finished. If there is even a brief in¬ 
terval in the flow there will be a “ set-line, ” or crease on the 
face of the block. 

If the whole face of the mould is flooded first then there can 
oe no set-lines and the filling of the mould may be done more 
slowly. This is important where the mould is very large and 
the filling of it a slower process. 

In some large plants the pouring is done from a ladle, carried 
on a traveling crane, in which are rotary paddles for the purpose 
of keeping the mixture stirred and of uniform consistency. 
Where the pouring is done into deep molds or into closed flasks, 
as in Fig. 169, where the fall of the stream would tear up the 
sand, it should be done through a funnel and pipe with a T 
outlet, which breaks the force of the fall of the cement and 
distributes it without danger to the mold. 

As the absorption of moisture from the stone into the sand 
causes a decrease in the volume of the mixture in tne mould 
and causes it to settle at the topj it is usually necessary to add 
a litle material to fill the depression before the mixture has 
set. 

Materials. —There is a wider latitude in the selection of 
the material to be used bn account of the variety and size of 
the product. 

In the making of all small blocks, and the facings of larger 
opes, powdered stone * (stone dust) is often used. If this 
material is as cheap as other aggregates, then the entire mass 
may best be made of it. 

If the block is one of large size, and if powdered stone is 
more expensive than sand and broken stone, then these coarser 
aggregates may best be used for the body or back of the block 
after the richer and finer material has been poured over the 
face of the block. 

* Recent tests show that cement and stone dust make as strong blocks 
as cement and sand.— Author. 






266 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 


Settling of the Aggregates. —Persons unfamiliar with 
the casting process often express fear that the heavier aggre¬ 
gates will settle to the bottom of the mould, thus making a 
stone of unequal texture and strength. If the mixture is 
made very thin and contains heavy matter, such as coarse 
gravel or stone, that portion would of course settle through 
the mass to the bottom. But if the mass is made of fine mate¬ 
rial, such as stone dust, there is never any settling. 

If chunks of broken blocks or stone are imbedded in the 
mass, it must be of such thickness or consistency as to support 
them. The face of the mould having been covered with thin 
and richer matter the backing or body of the mass may be 
much thicker and there will be no settling. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR HOLLOW BLOCKS OF THE 
NORTHWESTERN CEMENT-PRODUCTS ASSOCIA¬ 
TION. 

The Northwestern Cement-Products Association, at its 
annual meteing, held at Minneapolis, January 17, 18, and 
19, 1906, adopted standard specifications for hollow blocks as 
follows: 

Sand. —Such material as will pass through a screen J-inch 
mesh and is retained in screen having No. 40 mesh. This 
applies to river sand, bank sand, or screenings from a stone- 
crusher. 

Gravel. —Such stone or rock, obtained either from a bank 
or river, of such size as is retained in a screen having £-incli 
mesh. 

Crushed Stone. —Such stone from a crusher as is retained 
in a J-inch screen. 

Bank Gravel. —Such material as is obtained from a pit 
or river containing both sand and gravel. 

Aggregate. —Any material, such as broken stone, gravel, 
or such fragments used with cement and sand mortar in making 
concrete for the purpose of reducing the cost and adding to the 
strength. 

Voids. —The space existing between particles of sand, crushed 
stone, or materials of which an aggregate is composed. 

Cement. —Any American or Portland cement which will 
pass the tests required by the American Society for Testing 
Materials. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 


267 


Quality of Sand. —Sand suitable for concrete work must 
not be finer than the above described, must be sharp and gritty, 
not soft or loamy, must be free from loam, or other foreign 
material, and must not contain any perceptible amount of 
clay or other soluble matter. Some authorities conceded that 
clay to the extent of 10 per cent in sand or gravel is not harmful, 
but this committee is of the opinion that any perceptible amount 
of clay is unsafe. Crushed stone must be reasonably free from 
dust and must be retained on the same size screen as bank sand— 
viz,, ^-inch. Gravel or crushed stone must be free from loam, 
dust, or other foreign material, and must contain no soft or 
rotten stone. 

7 Determination of Amount of Cement to be Used with 
Aggregate.—A theoretically correct concrete should consist 
of sand and gravel, or crushed stone, or a combination of them, 
containing an amount of cement equal to the voids, in such 
combination. In other words, interstices should be filled 
with cement. 

To state this in another way, if the concrete is made up of 
sand and gravel, such proportion of cement should be used 
with the sand as is equal to the voids in the sand, and such 
quantity of this resulting mortar of sand and cement should 
be used with the crushed stone or gravel as will fill all voids 
in the crushed stone or gravel. 

Restating this in a few words, the cement should fill the 
voids in the sand, and the resulting mortar should fill the voids 
in the aggregate. 

Determination of Voids. —To determine the voids in the 
sand or the material to be used as an aggregate, what is known 
as the “water test" is employed. In preparing for this test, 
the sand or gravel must be perfectly dry. Sand has greater 
volume when wet. 

A receptacle holding a known amount, such as a quart jar, 
is filled with the material to be tested—sand, for example— 
and Into this receptacle is poured as much water as the sand 
or other material will absorb. The water should be measured. 
The amount of water absorbed indicates the voids, and also 
indicates the exact amount of cement which it is necessary 
to use in order to produce a solid concrete. 

In making hollow blocks, if no gravel or other coarse aggre¬ 
gate is used, the result of this test should give the proportions 
pf sand and cement to be used in block manufacture, Average 


268 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 


sand will absorb 25 to 35 per cent of water, indicating from 
25 to 35 per cent of voids; also indicating that the proportion 
to 1 part of cement to from 3 to 5 parts of sand are required 
to make a solid block. 

The proper selection of sand and aggregate material is im¬ 
portant. Care should be taken that the particles vary so 
in size as to reduce the voids to the smallest amount possible. 
With this careful selection the amount of cement required to 
produce good work is greatly reduced. 

Provided that in defining the proportions of cement we mean 
that a given measure of cement is one portion and that mul¬ 
tiples of that measure of aggregates as properly combined 
under the water test shall determine the proportion. If 
found under the test that 5 parts crushed stone or gravel 
will take 3 portions of sand to fill the voids without in¬ 
creasing the bulk, and that 1 portion of cement shallfill the 
remaining voids, this proportion shall be a 1 to 5 mixture. 

Mixing. —After the materials are selected they should be 
mixed together dry until thoroughly incorporated, or, in other 
words, until the mass is of an absolutely uniform color. Water 
should then be applied and the thorough mixture repeated. 
The amount qf water should be in all cases as great as possible 
without causing the materials to stick to the moulds when the 
stone is removed. 

A little more care in the treatment of the face plates of any 
machine will enable the, manufacturer to use a wetter concrete 
than is usually employed. Only such size batches should be 
mixed at one time as can be used up within thirty minutes 
from the time the water has been added. 

Manufacturing. —The concrete should be placed in the 
mould in small quantities, and tamoing should begin imme¬ 
diately upon the placing of the first shovelful and continue 
until the mould is full. The material should be tamped with 
a tamper having a small face, and shorj;, quick, sharp blows 
should be struck. 

In faced blocks the face should be composed of 2 parts sand 
and 1 part cement, the same being mixed in the manner de¬ 
scribed above. 

Owing, however, to the excess of cement used in facing, 
and owing further to the fact that the cement is what makes 
concrete sticky, the facing cannot he used as wet as the balance 
of the block is made. Great care should be taken to tamp 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 269 

the concrete thoroughly into the facing, so as to unite the two 
into one solid stone. 

In the wet process the amount of water is such as will produce 
a plastic or flowing condition in the concrete, but not enough 
to wash the cement from the other material. When placing 
the material in the moulds the entire mould is filled with one 
pouring. 

No stone having transverse ties or webs cracked should be 
used or even allowed to cure. Should a slight crack occur in 
moving the green stone throw the material back and make it 
over. In no case use a cracked stone in a building. 

/ Curing. —All stone made by the medium wet or medium dry 
process should be made under cover and kept under cover 
for at least ten days, protected from the dry currents of air. 
If shed room is not available to store a ten days’ output the 
blocks should be carried out after the initial set has taken 
place and covered with canvas, hay, or other covering that 
will retain moisture and at the same time keep the dry air 
from circulating around the block. Under no circumstances 
should blocks be made under the direct rays of the sun, nor 
should blocks made by this process be exposed to either sun¬ 
shine or dry winds while curing. 

The blocks should be gently sprinkled as soon as possible 
after making—that is, just as soon as the cement has set suffi¬ 
ciently that it will not wash. Blocks should be kept wet 
from ten days to two weeks, and should never be removed 
from the yard for the purpose of using in a building until they 
are from thirty to sixty days Old. This is very important. 
A green block will surely crack in the building on account of 
shrinkage. 

Laying. —In laying cement stone a soft mortar, composed 
of J cement-mortar and % lime-mortar should be used. This 
mortar should be made with fine sand free from stone, and 
should be buttered on the ends of • the stone before laying. 
The stone should be laid in the mortar and worked down. Do 
not leave end joints open until after the building is completed, 
because when the end joints are filled at this time shrinkage 
in mortar is liable to loosen it, causing the mortar to fall out, 
leaving openings through the wall. 

The spreading of mortar is very important, because if mortar 
is unevenly spread so that it is thicker under one portion of 
the stone than under the other a leverage is created, which, 


270 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 


under the weight of the wall, is liable to produce a crack in 
stone. 

Coloring. —In using coloring matter with concrete the color 
should always be mixed with the cement dry before any sand 
or water is added. This mixing should be thorough, so that 
the mixture is uniform in color. After this mixing the com¬ 
bination is treated in the same way as clear cement. 


STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 

Rules and Regulations for Blockmakers, as Revised, 
Corrected, and Adopted by the National Association 
of Cement Users at their Convention, 1908. 

Concrete hollow blocks made in accordance with the follow¬ 
ing specifications, and meeting the requirements thereof, 
may be used in building construction, subject to the usual 
form of approval required of other materials of construction 
by the Bureau of Building Inspection: 

1. Cement. — The cement used in making sand blocks shall 
be Portland cement, capable of passing the requirements as 
set forth in the “Standard Specifications for Cement,” by the 
American Society for Testing Materials. 

2. Sand. —The sand used shall be suitable siliceous material, 
passing the one-fourth inch mesh sieve, clean, gritty, and free 
from impurities. 

3. Stone or Coarse Aggregate. —This material shall be 
clean broken stone, free from dust, or clean screened gravel 
passing the three-quarter (|) inch, and refused by the one- 
quarter (L) inch, mesh sieve. 

4. Unit of Measurement.— The barrel of Portland cement’ 
shall weigh 380 pounds net, either in barrels or sub-divisions 
thereof, made up of cloth or paper bags, and a cubic foot of 
cement shall be called not to exceed 100 pounds or the equiva¬ 
lent of 3.8 cubic feet per barrel. Cement shall be gauged or 
measured either in the original package as received from the 
manufacturer, or may be weighed and so proportioned; but 
under no circumstances shall it be measured loose in bulk. 

5. Proportions. — For exposed exterior or bearing walls: 
(a) Concrete hollow blocks, machine made, using semi-wet 
concrete or mortar shall contain one (1) part cement, not to 
exceed three (3) parts sand, and not to exceed four (4) parts 


'SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 


271 


stone, of the character and size before stipulated. When the 
stone shall be omitted, the proportions of sand shall not be 
increased, unless it can be demonstrated that the percentage 
of voids and tests of absorption and strength, allow in each 
case of greater proportions, with equally good results. ( b) 
When said blocks are made of slush concrete, in individual 
moulds and allowed to harden undisturbed in same before 
removal, the proportions may be one (1) part cement to not 
exceed three (3) parts sand and five (5) parts stone, but in 
this case also, if the stone be omitted, the proportion of sand 
'shall not be increased. 

/ 6. Mixing. —Thorough and vigorous mixing is of the utmost 
importance. 

(a) Hand Mixing — The cement and sand in correct pro¬ 
portions shall be first perfectly mixed dry, the water shall 
then be added carefully and slowly in propor proportions, and 
thoroughly worked into and throughout the resultant mortar; 
the moistened gravel or broken stone shall then be added, 
eihter by spreading same uniformly over the mortar, or spread¬ 
ing the mortar uniformly over the stones, and then the whole 
mass shall be vigorously mixed together until the coarse aggre¬ 
gate is thoroughly incorporated with and distributed through¬ 
out the mortar. 

(b) Mechanical Mixing .—Preference shall be given to me¬ 
chanical mixers of suitable design and adapted to the particular 
work required of them; the sand and cement, or sand and 
cement and moistened stone shall, however, be first thoroughly 
mixed before the addition of water, and then continued until 
the water is uniformly distributed or incorporated with the 
mortar or concrete: Provided, however, that when making 
slush or wet concrete (such as will quake or flow) this procedure 
may be varied with the consent of the Bureau of Building 
Inspection, architect or engineer in charge. 

7. Moulding.— Due care shall be used to secure density 
and uniformity in the blocks by tamping or other suitable 
means of compression. Tamped blocks shall not be finished 
by simply striking off with a straight edge, but, after striking 
off, the top surfaces shall be trowelled or otherwise finished 
to secure density and a sharp and true arris. 

8. Curing. —Every precaution shall be taken to prevent the 
drying out of the blocks during their initial set and first 
hardening. A sufficiency of water shall first be used in the 


272 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 


mixing to perfect the crystallization of the cement, and, after 
moulding, the blocks shall be carefully protected from wind 
currents, sunlight, dry heat t»r freezing, for at least five (5) 
days, during which time additional moisture shall be supplied 
by approved methods, and occasionally thereafter until ready 
for use. 

9. Ageing. —Concrete hollow blocks in which the ratio of 

cement to sand be one-third (^) (one part cement to three 
parts sand), shall not be used in the construction of any build¬ 
ing in the (City) of- (Town) of- until they have 

attained the age of not less than three (3) weeks. 

Concrete hollow blocks in which the ratio of cement to sand 
be one-half (^) (one part cement to two parts sand), may be 
used in construction at the age of two (2) weeks, with the 
special consent of the Bureau of Building Inspection and the 
architect or engineer in charge. 

Special blocks of rich composition, required for closures, 
may be used at the age of seven (7) days with the special 
consent of the same authorities. 

The time herein named is conditional, however, upon main¬ 
taining proper conditions of exposure during the curing period. 

10. Marking. —All concrete blocks shall be marked for 
purposes of identification, showing name of manufacturer or 
brand, date (day, month, and year) made, and composition 
or proportions used, as, for example, 1:3:5, meaning one 
cement, three sand, and five stone. 

11. Thickness of Walls.— The thickness of bearing walls 
for any building where concrete hollow blocks are used, may 
be ten (10) per cent less than is required by law for brick 
walls. For curtain walls, or partition walls, the requirements 
shall be the same as in the use of hollow tile, terra-cotta, or 
plaster blocks. 

12. Party Walls. —Hollow concrete blocks shall not be 
permitted in the construction of party walls, except when 
filled solid. 

13. Walls, Laying of. —Where the face only is of hollow 
concrete block, and the backing is of brick, the facing of hollow 
block must be strongly bonded to the brick either with headers 
projecting four (4) inches into the brickwork, every fourth 
course being a heading course, or with approved ties; no brick 
backing to be less than eight (8) inches. Where the walls 
are made entirely of concrete blocks, but where said blocks 




SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS, 


273 


have not the same width as the wall, every fifth course shall 
extend through the wall, forming a secure bond, when not 
otherwise sufficiently bonded. All walls, where blocks are 
used, shall be laid up with Portland cement mortar. 

14. Girders or Joists. —Wherever girders or joists rest 
upon walls so that there is a concentrated load on the block 
of over two (2) tons, the block supporting the girder or joists 
must be made solid for at least eight (8) inches from the inside 
face.' Where such concentrated load shall exceed five (5) 
tons, the blocks for at least three courses below, and for a 
distance extending at least eighteen (18) inches, each side of 
said girder, shall be made solid for at least eight (8) inches 
from the inside face. Wherever walls are decreased in thick¬ 
ness, the top course of the thicker wall shall afford a full solid 
bearing for the webs or walls of the course of blocks above. 

15. Limit of Loading. —No wall, nor any part thereof, 
composed of concrete hollow blocks, shall be loaded to an 
excess of eight (8) tons per superficial foot of the area of such 
blocks, including the weight of the wall, and no blocks shall 
be used in bearing walls that have an average crushing at 
less than 1000 pounds per sq. in. of area, at the age of twenty- 
eight (28) days; no deduction to be made in figuring the area 
for the hollow spaces. 

16. Sills and Lintels. —Concrete sills and lintels shall be 
reinforced by iron or steel rods in a manner satisfactory to 
the Bureau of Building Inspection, and the architect or engi¬ 
neer in charge, and any lintels spanning over four feet six 
inches shall rest on block solid for at least eight inches from 
the face next the opening and for at least three courses below 
the bottom of the lintel. 

17. Hollow Space. —The hollow space in building blocks, 
used in bearing walls, shall not exceed the percentage given 
in the following table for different height walls, and in no 
case shall the walls or webs of the block be less in thickness 
than one fourth their height. The figures given in the table 
represent the percentage of such hollow space for different 
height walls: 


Stories. 

1st. 

2d. 

3d. 

4 th. 

5th. 

6th. 

1 and 2.. 

.. 33 

33 





3 and 4.. 

. . .25 

33 

33 

33 



5 and 6.. 

.. 20 

25 

25 

33 

33 

33 


274 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 


18. Application for Use. —Before any such material be 
used in buildings, an application for its use and for, a test of 
the same must be filed with the Bureau of Building Inspection. 
In the absence of such a bureau the application shall be filed 
with the chief of any department having such matters in 
charge. A description of the material and a brief outline of 
its manufacture and proportions used must be embodied in 
the application. The name of the firm or corporation, and 
the responsible officers thereof, shall also be given, and changes 
in same thereafter promptly reported. 

19. Preliminary Test. —No hollow concrete blocks shall be 
used in the construction of any building unless the maker of 
said blocks has submitted his product to the full tests required 
herein, and placed on file with the Bureau of Building In¬ 
spection, or other duly authorized official, a certificate from 
a reliable testing laboratory, showing that representative 
samples have been tested and successfully passed all require¬ 
ments hereof, and giving in detail the results of the tests 
made. 

No concrete blocks shall be used in the construction of any 
building until they have been inspected and approved, or, 
if required, until representative samples be tested and found 
satisfactory. The results of all tests, made whether satisfac¬ 
tory or not, shall be placed on file in the Bureau of Building 
Inspection. These records shall be open to inspection upon 
application, but need not necessarily be published. 

20. Additional Tests.— The manufacturer and user of such 
hollow concrete blocks, or either of them, shall, at any and 
all times, have made such tests of the cements used in making 
such blocks, or such further tests of the completed blocks, or 
of each of these, at their own expense, and under the super¬ 
vision of the Bureau of Building Inspection, as the chief of 
said bureau shall require. 

In case the result of tests made under this condition should 
show that the standard of these regulations is not maintained, 
the certificate of approval issued to the manufacturer of said 
blocks will at once be suspended or revoked. 

21. Certificate of Approval. —Following the application 
called for in clause No. 18, and upon the satisfactory con¬ 
clusion of the tests called for, a certificate of approval shall 
be issued to the maker of the blocks by the Bureau of Building 
Inspection. This certificate of approval will not remain in 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLOCKS. 


275 


force for more than four months, ’unless there be filed with 
the Bureau of Building Inspection, at least once every four 
months following, a certificate from some reliable physical 
testing laboratory showing that the average of at least three 
(3) specimens tested for compression, and at least three (3) 
specimens tested for transverse strength, comply with the 
requirements herein set forth. The said samples to be selected 
by a building inspector, or by the laboratory, from blocks 
actually going into construction work. 

22. Test Requirements. —Concrete hollow blocks must be 
subjected to the following tests: Transverse, compression, and 
absorption, and may be subjected to the freezing and fire 

"tests, but the expense of conducting the freezing and fire 
.tests will not be imposed upon the manufacturer of said 
blocks. 

The test samples must represent the ordinary commercial 
product, of the regular size and shape used in construction. 
The samples may be tested as soon as desired by the 
applicant, but in no case later than sixty days after manu¬ 
facture. 

Transverse Test .—The modulus of rupture for concrete 
blocks at 28 days must average one hundred and fifty, and 
must not fall below one hundred in any case. 

Compression Test .—The ultimate compressive strength at 
28 days must average one thousand (1000) pounds per 
square inch, and must not fall below seven hundred in any 
case. 

Absorption Test .—The percentage of absorption (being the 
weight of water absorbed, divided by the weight of the dry 
sample) must not average higher than 15 per cent, and must 
not exceed 22 per cent in any case. 

23. Condemned Block. —Any and all blocks, samples of 
which on being tested under the direction of the Bureau of 
Building Inspection, fail to stand at twenty-eight (28) days 
the tests required by this regulation, shall be marked 
condemned by the manufacturer or user and shall be 
destroyed. 

24. Cement Brick. —Cement brick may be used, as a sub¬ 
stitute for clay brick. They shall be made of one part cement 
to not exceeding four parts clean sharp sand, or one part cement 
to not exceeding three parts clean sharp sand and three parts 
broken stone or gravel passing the one-half inch and refused 


276 BUILDING REGULATIONS FOR USE OF BLOCKS. 

by the one-quarter inch mesh sieve. In all other respects, 
cement brick must conform to the requirements of the fore¬ 
going specifications. 

Building Regulations of Concrete Blocks.—The city 
of Philadelphia has recently adopted rules and regulations 
regarding the manufacture and use of hollow concrete blocks 
which are based on an exhaustive series of tests made in the 
laboratories of Henry S. Spackman Engineering Co., on blocks 
selected at random from the yards of the various makers in 
Philadelphia, and for the purpose of comparison, similar tests 
were made on building-brick and solid concrete cubes, the 
bricks being tested after being built into piers of similar size 
with the concrete blocks. 

Tests were also made in the laboratories of the City of Phila-. 
delphia, and as a result of this investigation the building laws 
of Philadelphia were modified, the new regulations printed 
below being substituted for those previously in force, which 
we think will in time form a model for other cities, as they have 
been carefully studied from every standpoint, representing 
the views of the Bureau of Building Inspectors, the Philadelphia 
Association of the Cement Block Manufacturers, and the •test¬ 
ing laboratories of the Henry S. Spackman Engineering Co., 
and were only adopted after having been subjected to severe 
criticism and general discussion by all parties interested in 
their formulation. They should therefore be the most scientifi¬ 
cally constructed of any yet prepared, and, while in some details 
they do not fit all conditions, it is certain that they will 
insure safe and durable structures. The regulations are as 
follows: 

Rules and Regulations Covering the Manufacture and 
Use of Hollow Concrete Building-blocks in the City of 
Philadelphia.— 1 . Hollow concrete building-blocks may be 
used for building six stories or less in height, where said use 
is approved by the Bureau bf Building Inspection, provided, 
however, that such blocks shall be composed of at least one (1) 
part of standard Portland cement and not to exceed five (5) 
parts of clean, coarse, sharp sand or gravel, or a mixture of at 
least one part Portland cement to five (5) parts of crushed 
rock or other suitable aggregate. Provided, further, that this 
section shall not permit the use of hollow blocks in party walls. 
Said party walls must be built solid. 

2. All material to be of such fineness as to pass a half-inch 


BUILDING REGULATIONS FOR USE OF BLOCKS. 277 


ring and be free from dirt or foreign matter. The material 
composing such blocks shall be properly mixed and manipulated, 
and the hollow space in said blocks shall not exceed the per¬ 
centage given in the following table for different height of 
walls, and in no case shall the walls or webs of the block be 
less in thickness than one-fourth of the height. The figures 
given in the table represent the percentage of such hollow 
space for different height walls: 


Stories. 

1st. 

2d 

3d. 

4th. 

5th . 

6th 

1 and 2... 

, 33 

33 





3 and 4.. 

. 25 

33 

33 

33 



5 and 6.. 

. 20 

25 

25 

33- 

33 

33 



3. The thickness for walls for any building where hollow 
concrete blocks are used shall not be less than is required by 
law for brick walls. 

4. Where the face only is of hollow concrete building-block 
and the backing is of brick, the facing of hollow concrete blocks 
must be strongly bonded to the brick, either with headers 
projecting four inches into the brickwork, every fourth course 
being a heading course, or with approved ties, no brick backing 
to be less than eight inches. Where the walls are made en¬ 
tirely of hollow concrete blocks, but where said blocks have 
not the same width as the wall, every fifth course shall 
extend through the wall, forming a secure bond. All nails 
where blocks are used shall be laid up in Portland cement 
mortar. 

5. All hollow concrete building-blocks, before being used 
in the construction in any buildings in the city of Philadelphia, 
shall have attained the age of at least three (3) weeks. 

6. Wherever girders or joists rest upon walls so that there 
is a concentrated load on the block of over two (2) tons, the 
blocks supporting the girder or joists must be made solid. 
Where such concentrated load shall exceed five (5) tons the 
blocks for two (2) courses below, and for a distance extending 
at least eighteen (18) inches each side of said girder, shall be 
made solid. Where the load on the wall from the girder ex¬ 
ceeds five (5) tons, the blocks for three (3) courses underneath 
it shall be made solid with similar material as in the blocks. 
Wherever walls are decreased in thickness the top course of 
the thicker wall to be made solid. 


278 BUILDING REGULATIONS FOR USE OF BLOCKS. 

7. Provided always that no wall or any part thereof com¬ 
posed of hollow concrete blocks shall be loaded to an excess of 
eight (8) tons per superficial foot of the area of such blocks, 
including the weight of the wall, and no blocks shall be used 
that have an average crushing strength less than 1000 pounds 
per square inch of area at the age of twenty-eight days, no 
deduction to be made in figuring the area for the hollow 
spaces. 

8. All piers and buttresses that support loads in excess of 
five (5) tons shall be built of solid concrete blocks for such 
distance below as may be required by the Bureau of Building 
Inspection. Concrete lintels and sills shall be reinforced by 
iron or steel rods in a manner satisfactory to the Bureau of 
Building Inspection, and any lintels spanning over four feet 
six inches in the clear shall rest on solid concrete blocks. 

9. Provided that no hollow concrete building-blocks shall be 
used in the construction of any building in the city of Phila¬ 
delphia, unless the maker of such blocks has submitted his 
product to the full test required by the Bureau of Building 
Inspection, and placed on file with said Bureau of Building 
Inspection a certificate from a reliable testing laboratory 
showing that samples from the lot of blocks to be used have 
successfully passed the requirements of the Bureau of Build¬ 
ing Inspection, and filing a full copy of the test with the 
bureau. 

10. A brand or mark of identification must be impressed 
in or otherwise permanently attached to each block for pur¬ 
pose of identification. 

11. No certificate of approval shall be considered in force 
for more than four months unless there be filed with the Bureau 
of Building Inspection, in the city of Philadelphia, at least 
once every four months following, a certification from some 
reliable physical testing laboratory, showing that the average 
of three (3) specimens tested for compression and three (3) 
specimens tested for transverse strength comply with the 
requirements of the Bureau of Building Inspection of the city 
of Philadelphia, said samples to be selected either by a build¬ 
ing inspector or by the laboratory from blocks actually going 
into construction work. Samples must not be furnished by 
the contractors or builders. 

12. The manufacturer and user of any such hollow concrete 
blocks as are mentioned in this regulation, or either of them, 


BUILDING REGULATIONS FOR USE OF BLOCKS. 279 


shall at any time have made such tests of the cements used 
in making such blocks or such further tests of the completed 
blocks, or of each of these, at their own expense, and under 
the supervision of the Bureau of Building Inspection, as the 
chief of said bureau shall require. 

13. The cement used in making said blocks shall be Port¬ 
land cement, and must be capable of passing the minimum 
requirements as set forth in the “Standard Specifica¬ 
tions for Cement’' by the American Society for Testing 
Materials. 

14. Any and all blocks, samples of which, on being tested 
under the direction of the Bureau of Building Inspection, fail 

—to stand at twenty-eight days the tests required by this regu- 
> lation, shall be marked condemned by the manufacturer or user 
and shall be destroyed. 

15. No concrete blocks shall be used in the construction of 
any building within the city of Philadelphia until they shall 
have been inspected and' average samples of the lot tested, 
approved and accepted by the chief of the Bureau of Building 
Inspection. 

Specifications governing method of testing hollow block: 

1. These regulations shall apply to all new materials such 
as are used in building construction, in the same manner and 
for the same purposes, as stones, brick, concrete, are now 
authorized by the building laws, when said new material to be 
substituted departs from the general shape and dimensions 
of ordinary building-brick, and more particularly to that form 
of building material known as hollow concrete block, manu¬ 
factured from cement and a certain addition of sand, crushed 
stone or similar material. 

2. Before any such material is used in buildings an. appli¬ 
cation for its use and for a test of the same must be filed with 
the chief of the Bureau of Building Inspection. A description 
of the material and a brief outline of its manufacture and 
proportions of the material used must be embodied in the 
application. 

3. The material must be subjected to the following tests: 
Transverse, compression, absorption, freezing, and fire. Ad¬ 
ditional tests may be called for when, in the judgment of the 
chief of the Bureau of Building Inspection, the same may be 
necessary. All such tests must be made in some laboratory 
of recognized standing, under the supervision of the engineer 


280 BUILDING REGULATIONS FOR USE OF BLOCKS. 


of the Bureau of Building Inspection. The tests will be made 
at the expense of the applicant. 

4. The results of the tests^ whether satisfactory or not, 
must be placed on file in the Bureau of Building Inspection. 
They shall be open to inspection upon application to the chief 
of the bureau, but need not necessarily be published. 

5. For the purposes of the tests at least twenty (20) samples 
or test pieces must be provided. Such samples must represent 
the ordinary commercial product. They may be selected 
from stock by the chief of the Bureau of Building of Inspection 
his representative, or may be made in his presence, at his 
discretion. The samples must be of the regular size and shape 
used in construction. In cases where the material is made 
and used in special shapes and forms too large for testing in * 
the ordinary machines, smaller-sized specimens shall be used 
as may be directed by the chief of the Bureau of Building 
Inspection, to determine the physical characteristics specified 
in Section 3. 

6. The samples may be tested as soon as desired by the appli¬ 
cant, but in no case later than sixty days after manufacture. 

7. The weight per cubic foot of the material must be deter¬ 
mined. 

8. Tests shall be made in series of at least five, except that 
in the fire tests a series of two (four samples) are sufficient. 
Transverse tests shall be made on full-sized samples. Half 
samples may be used for the crushing, freezing, and fire tests. 
The remaining samples are kept in reserve, in case unusual 
flaws or exceptional or abnormal conditions make it necessary 
to discard certain of the tests. All samples must be marked 
for identification and comparison. 

9. The transveres tests shall be made as follows: The sam¬ 
ples shall be placed flatwise on two rounded knife-edge bearings 
set parallel, seven inches apart. A load is then applied on 
top, midway between the supports, and transmitted through 
a similar rounded knife edge until the sample is ruptured. The 
modulus of rupture shall then be determined by multiplying 
the total breaking load in pounds by 21 (three times the dis¬ 
tance between supports in inches), and then dividing the result 
thus obtained by twice the product of the width in inches by 
the square of the depth in inches. 






31 VI 


2bd 2 ' 


BUILDING REGULATIONS FOR USE OF BLOCKS. 281 

No allowance should be made in figuring the modulus of rup¬ 
ture for the hollow spaces. 

10. The compression test shall be made as follows: Samples 
must be cut from blocks so as to contain a full web section; 
samples must be carefully measured, then bedded flatwise 
in plaster of Paris to secure a uniform bearing in the testing 
machine and crushed. The total breaking load is then divided 
by the area in compression in square inches. No deduction 
to be made for hollow spaces; the area will be considered as 
the product of the width by the length. 

11. The absorption tests must be made- as follows: The 
sample is first thoroughly dried to a constant weight. The 
weight must be carefully recorded. It is then placed in a 
pan or tray of water, face downward, immersing it to a depth 
or not more than one-half inch. It is again carefully weighed 
at the following periods: Thirty minutes, four hours and forty- 
eight hours, respectively, from the time of immersion, being 
replaced in the water in each case as soon as the weight is 
taken. Its compressive strength while still wet is then deter¬ 
mined at the end of the forty-eight-hour period in the manner 
specified in Section 10. 

12. The freezing tests are made as follows: The sample is 
immersed as described in Section 11, for at least four hours, 
and then weighed. It is then placed in a freezing mixture 
or a refrigerator, or otherwise subjected to a temperature of 
less than 15 degrees Fahrenheit for at least twelve hours. It 
is then removed and placed in water, where it must remain 
for at least one hour, the temperature of which is at least 150 
degrees Fahrenheit. This operation is repeated ten times, 
after which the sample is again weighed, while still wet from 
the last thawing. Its crushing strength should then be deter¬ 
mined as called for ifi Section 10. 

13. The fire test must be made as follows: Two samples are 
placed in a cold furnace in which the temperature is gradually 
raised to 1700 degrees Fahrenheit. The test piece must be 
subjected to this temperature for at least thirty minutes. 
One of the samples is then plunged in cold water (about 50 
to 60 degrees Fahrenheit) and the results noted. The second 
sample is permitted to cool gradually in air and the results 
noted. 

14. The following requirements must be tnet to secure an 
acceptance of the materials: The modulus of rupture for con- 


282 BUILDING REGULATIONS FOR USE OF BLOCKS. 


Crete blocks at twenty-eight days old must average 150, and 
must not fall below 100 in any case. The ultimate compressive 
strength at twenty-eight days must average 1000 pounds per 
square inch, and must not fall below 700 pounds in any case. 
The percentage of absorption (being the 'weight of water ab¬ 
sorbed divided by the weight of the dry sample) must not average 
higher than 15 per cent, and must not exceed 20 per cent in any 
case. The reduction of compressive strength must not be 
more than 33^ per cent, except that when the lower figure 
is still above 1000 pounds per square inch the loss in strength 
may be neglected. The freezing and thawing process must not 
cause a loss in weight greater than 10 per cent nor a loss in 
strength of more than 33J per cent, except that when the 
lower figure is still above 1000 pounds per square inch the loss 
in strength may be neglected. The fire test must not cause 
the material to disintegrate. 

15. The approval of any material is given only under the 
following conditions: 

(а) A brand mark for identification must be impressed on 
or otherwise attached to the material. 

(б) A plant for the production of the material must be in 
full operation when the official tests are made. 

(c) The name of the firm or corporation and the responsible 
officers must be placed on file with the chief of the Bureau 
of Building Inspection, and changes in the same promptly 
reported. 

(d) The chief of the Bureau of Building Inspection may 
require full tests to be repeated on samples selected from the 
open market when, in his opinion, there is any doubt as to 
whether the product is up to the standard of these regulations, 
and the manufacturer must submit to the Bureau of Building 
Inspection once in at least every four months a certificate of 
tests showing that the average resistance of three specimens 
to cross-breaking and crushing are not below the requirements 
of these regulations. Such tests must be made by some labora¬ 
tory of recognized standing on samples selected by a building 
inspector or the laboratory, from material actually going into 
construction, and not on ones furnished by the manufacturer. 

(e) In case the results of tests made under these conditions 
should show that the standard of these regulations is not main¬ 
tained, the approval of this bureau to the manufacturer of 
said blocks will at once be suspended or revoked. 


BUILDING REGULATIONS FOR USE OF BLOCKS. 283 


REGULATION OF CONCRETE BLOCKS IN NEWARK, 

N. J. 

The building regulations regarding concrete construction 
recently adopted by the city of Newark, N. J., are much shorter 
and more specific, and therefore do not cover all the condi¬ 
tions which may arise, as well as the Philadelphia regulations. 
Where detailed tests are difficult to secure there may be some 
excuse for this class of rules, but on the one hand they will 
work hardships in many cases, and on the other it is not prob¬ 
able that they will permit positively bad construction if they 
^re conscientiously enforced. 

Cement Built in Forms. —Cement built in forms shall con¬ 
sist of a standard Portland cement, one part cement, two parts 
of sharp grit sand, free from loam or dirt, four parts broken 
stone no greater than one and a half inch in diameter, and no 
walls or building of this construction shall be higher than 
twenty (20) feet; above this height must be steel-concrete 
constructipn. This construction is for foundation to grade. 
No ashes will be allowed. 

Concrete Blocks or Artificial Stone. —Cement building- 
blocks shall be constructed of a standard Portland cement 
mixed with sharp grit sand free from loam or dirt, crushed stone, 
slag or gravel in proportions of one to four—one part cement, 
one and a half part of sand to two and a half parts of crushed 
stone, to pass through a three-fourths-inch screen. 

Blocks shall not be larger than thirty-six inches long and ten 
inches in height, and not less than eight inches nor greater 
than sixteen inches wide. Blocks may have one or more 
hollow spaces, provided that no more than one-third of each 
block is hollow. 

Blocks shall be at least thirty days old before being used 
in any building wall, and stand a tensile test of 150 pounds 
to the square inch and 1500 pounds compression test. 

Strength and Tests of Building Blocks.— Recently 
W. M. Scott of the Hayden Automatic Block Machine Co., 
of Columbus, Ohio, had a number of tests of blocks made, 
the result of which is given in the following table. The blocks 
were tested at various ages, as shown 

The blocks were made of lake sand. Plain block with a 
mixture of 2 r*arts sand and 1 part cement for the face of block 
and i inch thick on face. 


284 STRENGTH AND TESTS OP BUILDING-BLOCKS. 


The balance of the block was a mixture of 4 parts sand and 
1 part cement. The three months’ old blocks were tested by 
the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1900 pounds to 
the square inch. 

The six months’ old blocks were the same sand and mixture 
as the three months’ old blocks and made on the same machine 
and tested by the Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass. All 
blocks tested were made on the Hayden machine for the manu¬ 
facturers, Watertown test, 2930 pounds to the square inch. 


Actual Size, 
which 
Allows for 
i" of 
Mortar. 
Inches. 

No. 

of 

Inches. 

Air 

Space. 

Inches. 

No. 

of 

Inches. 

Amount 

of 

Material. 

Inches. 

Strength, at 

3 Mos. 
Pounds, 

3 Mos. 
Tons. 

6 Mos. 
Tons. 

8X81X31! 

2222 

2-3 X 10 

587 

1633 

368,600 

184 

284 

9X81X31! 

2500 

2-4 X 10 

762 

1738 

389,500 

194! 

300 

10X8!X3l! 

2778 

2-4 X 10 

763 

2015 

450,300 

225 

347 

12X8!X31f 

3333 

2-4X10 

764 

2569 

568,100 

284 

438 

12X8!X31! 

3333 

2-6 X 10 

1114 

2219 

492,100 

246 

379 

16X8!X31! 

4445 

2-9 X 9 

1455 

2990 

657,400 

328J 

565 


In a paper read before the convention of N. A. C. U. at 
Chicago, January 1907, R. D. Kneal, Instructor in Civil Engi¬ 
neering, Purdue Univeristy, gave the result of tests on a number 
of blocks as follows: 

This paper is a description of the tests of some thirty plain 
concrete building blocks which were about one year old. These 
blocks were of the usual block type, 16X8X6 inches, with two 
4 X 5-inch inside openings. All were made of the same mate¬ 
rials and treated as nearly alike in manufacture as possible. 
The materials used were gravel 100 per cent fine on a sieve 
of ^-inch mesh, and Lehigh Portland cement. The proportions 
were 1 of cement to 5 of gravel. Each block was faced with 
1:2 mortar, using the same cement as in the body of the block, 
and using an ungraded, clean river sand. The faces were so 
well bonded to the block that in no case did failure occur be¬ 
tween facing and block. The faces were approximately % inch 
thick, and were not considered in figuring the cross-section 
used in compression tests. After initial curing the blocks were 
stored outdoors without covering. They were selected at 
random for the test from large piles exhibited for sale. 

The blocks were tested in the laboratory for testing materials 
at Purdue University. The results of the tests are as follows: 














STRENGTH AND TESTS OF BUILDING-BLOCKS. 285 


Six blocks were broken in flexure. Two 1-inch wrought- 
iron rollers were placed 14 inches apart on the platform of a 
Riehle 200,000-pound vertical testing-machine. On these 
rollers the block was placed, with the facing vertical. A third 
roller, 1 inch in diameter, was placed parallel to the others, 
on the centre line of the block, and the compression head brought 


down on 

this roller. 

The 

results given below 

show fair uni- 

formity: 

Flexure. 


Load at Failure. 

Modulus of 
Rupture. 

(lbs. per sq. in.) 

No. 

Span. 

1 

14 inches 

6,040 lbs. 

300 

2 

14 

( ( 

5,270 “ 

260 

3 

14 

(l 

4,900 “ 

242 

4 

14 

i ( 

3,900 “ 

192 

5 

14 

( C 

4,300 “ 

212 

6 

14 

a 

4,880 “ 

240 


Average, 

4,485 lbs. 

241 


Twenty-four blocks were tested in compression—six in 
columns one block high, two columns two blocks high, two 
columns three blocks high, and two columns four blocks high. 
To give an even bearing on the machine, the columns were 
bedded in plaster, and to give an even bearing on each other 
in the column one series of blocks was cemented into columns 
with plaster, the other series with neat Portland cement. This 
difference of bedding material, however, gave no appreciable 
variation in results. All columns failed in similar vertical 
planes through the partition walls. The results of the com¬ 
pression test are given in the table on page 286, the 200,000- 
pound Riehle vertical testing-machine being used. 

Weight. —The average weight per block was 55 pounds. 
The average weight per cubic foot of material was 147 pounds. 

Absorption.— Half blocks, after drying two days in the heat¬ 
ing oven, were immersed in water and absorbed in per cent 
by weight after four hours’ immersion. After four days’ 
immersion this per cent of absorption increased only % per cent. 
On immersing the face only, it absorbed 2.3 per cent of the 
weight immersed in four hours. 

Summary.— The results of the test then show that the mod¬ 
ulus of rupture is 241 pounds per square inch, which is 85 per 
cent of that determined by Fuller for 1:3:5 concrete beams. 




286 COST OF CEMENT AND PLASTER WORK. 


LOADS IN 1,000 POUNDS. 





First Crack. 

Test. 

Columns 

Tested. 

Blocks in 
Columns. 

Total. 

Pounds per Sq. In. 




Max. 

Min. 

Avg. 

Max. 

Min. 

Avg. 

1 

5 

1 

195 

106 

146 

2.19 

1.15 

1.63 

2 

2 

2 

145 

106 

126 

1.63 

1.22 

1.43 

3 

2 

3 

145 

100 

123 

1.63 

1.15 

1.69 

4 

2 

4 

146 

119 

133 

1.63 

1.36 

1.49 




Maximum. 

1 

5 

1 

195 

107 

152 

2.19 

1.17 

1.67 

2 

2 

2 

145 

115 

130 

1.63 

1.32 

1.47 

3 

2 

3 

163 

115 

139 

1.63 

1.20 

1.41 

4 

2 

4 

146 

119 

132 

1.63 

1.36 

1.49 


The strength per square inch in compression averages 1500 
pounds, or about 60 per cent of the strength of solid cubes 
and cylinders of 1:3:5 concrete as given by various authors. 
This compressive strength shows little variation for columns 
of four blocks high. 

Results throughout the test checked with fair-uniformity. 

Tests made under the specifications of the city of Philadel¬ 
phia on concrete blocks in the market have developed about 
the following results: 

Modulus of rupture, 150 to 175 lbs. 

Compressive strength, 1200 to 1600 lbs. per square inch. 

Absorption, 5 per cent. 

The compressive strength is reduced little, if any, by the 
water absorbed. 

Freezing tests show little loss. 

The average compressive strength after freezing is in the 
vicinity of 1000 lbs. per square inch. 

The blocks passed the fire tests well. 

Cost of Cement and Plaster Work. —No rule or set 

schedule of prices can be prepared that will apply to all concrete 
work, as all concrete work and conditions under which it is done 
are not alike; hence only approximate costs can be given. The 
approximate prices given below are based on the work being done 
by skilled mechanics at the following wages: Cement finishers, 50 



























COST OF CEMENT AND PLASTER WORK. 286a 


cents per hour; carpenters, 50 cents per hour; laborers, 25 cents 
per hour. 

The unit prices on concrete includes the forms. 

Sidewalks and floors, 4" base, 1" top coat, will cost from 12 
to 18 cents per square foot. 

Curbs, 6"X2' 6", will cost from 45 to 60 cents per linear foot. 

Pavements, 6" base, 1" top, cut into blocks 6"X 6", will cost 
about 30 cents per square foot. 

Concrete foundations, walls, etc., with no reinforcement, will 
cost from $5.00 to $9.00 per cubic yard, according to the size 
and shape of the work. 

Reinforced retaining walls will cost from $8.00 to $13.00 per 
cubic yard. 

Reinforced concrete in buildings, floors, columns, etc., will cost 
from $20.00 to $30.00 per cubic yard. A price of $1.00 per cubic 
foot is often used to approximate the cost of reinforced concrete 
in buildings and like work. 

Beam and slab floors will cost from 40 to 50 cents per square 
foot, according to the thickness and reinforcement. 

Slab floors and beam covering in steel skeleton construction 
will cost from 25 to 40 cents per square foot of floor surface. 

For estimating approximately the cost of reinforced concrete^ 
Ernest McCullough in “ Reinforced Concrete, a Manual of Prac¬ 
tice,” gives the following rule: 

11 Get the exact costs of sand, stone, and cement delivered on 
the job and reduce the costs to the cost per cubic yard of con_ 
crete. To this add $5.00 per cubic yard for steel. This will be 
one-half—3/6 the cost per cubic yard of concrete in place. The 
labor on concrete and steel will be 1/6, and the material and 
labor on forms will be 2/6. For average buildings containing 
about 2000 cubic yards of concrete this will be about true. Add 
2 per cent to cost for each 100 yards less than 2000. Complicated 
work will increase the cost greatly. To this price must be added 
cost or rent of plant, and the profit of the contractor.” 

Cost of Concrete Forms. —The cost of forms, like that of 
concrete, varies according to the nature of the work, and no set 
price or rule can be given for obtaining the cost. 

Form work in general will cost from $15.00 to $25.00 per 
thousand feet B. M in addition to the cost of the lumber. If the 
lumber is used the second time, the price of labor will be increased 
about $5.00 per thousand feet B.M. 


2866 COST OF CEMENT AND PLASTER WORK. 

% 

The forms for buildings, floors, columns, beams, and like con¬ 
struction will cost from $6.00 to $8.00 per cubic yard of con¬ 
crete. 

Forms for arches, bridges, and heavy work will cost from $2.00 
to $3.00 per cubic yard of concrete. 

To take down, clean and draw the nails from form lumber wi 1 
cost from $2.50 to $3.50 per thousand feet B. M. 

Cost of Cement Blocks. —With labor at 30 cents per hour, 
cement at $2.00 per barrel and sand and gravel at $1.50 per 
yard, the cost to manufacture cement building blocks, excluding 
the depreciation of plant and profit, will be about as follows: 

8"X 8"X16" blocks will cost about 9 cents each; 

8"X 8"X24" 

or 8"X12"X16" “ “ “ “ 14 “ “ 

8"X12"X24" “ “ “ “ 23 “ “ 

With mason labor at 50 cents per hour and helper at 25 cents 
per hour the cost of laying cement blocks will be about 6 cents 
per square foot of wall surface. 

Cost of Plastering. —Including lath. 3-coat work, plaster 
Paris finish: 


Lime plaster on masonry. 25-30 cents per sq. yd. 

woodjath. 30-35 “ “• 

“ “ " metafla h. 55-65 “ “ “ 

Patent or hard plaster on masonry. 35-40 11 “ t( 

“ “ “ “ 11 wood lath .... 40-45 “ “ “ 

“ “ “ “ “ metal “ .... 65-80 “ “ « 

Cement plaster on masonry. 60-75 “ “ 11 

“ “ “ metal lath. 80-90 “ 


For Keen’s Cement finish add to the above price 7 cents per 
square yard. 








PART VI. 


LATHING AND PLASTERING, LATHING AND 
FURRING, MATERIALS FOR MAKING 
PLASTER, APPLYING PLASTER, USE OF 
HARD OR PATENT PLASTER, VARIOUS 
WORK DONE BY PLASTERERS, ESTI¬ 
MATING PLASTERING, TABLES .FOR 
ESTIMATING. 


Wood Lathing. —Wooden laths are strips of wood sawed 
f inch thick, 1 inch, 1^ inch, If inches, and inches wide, 
and usually 4 feet long. No. 1 laths are of white pine, spruce, 
or cedar, and free from large knots, bark, or other defects, 
and are of uniform dimensions. No. 2 laths are usually made 
from hemlock, hard pine, or culls from the stock for No. 1 
laths, and are not of uniform dimensions. 

In putting on the laths tliey should have a nail to each 
bearing, and very often specifications for the work will call 
for two nails at each end. When putting on the laths the 
lather should see that all studs and joist are straight and in 
line. If any are not straight or out of line, he should call 
the attention of the carpenter to it and have the joists or studs 
straightened before putting on the laths. 

The laths for ordinary lime-mortar should be spaced about 
$ inch apart, and for the patent or hard plasters should be 
spaced about inch apart. 

The perpendicular joints in the laths should be broken about 
every sixth course, or lath. 

No lath should be set vertical to fill out corners or any other 
place. 


287 



288 


LATHING AND FURRING. 


When the laths cross a bearing over 2 inches in width a 
lath or strip should be put under the laths, so there will be a 
space back of the laths for the plaster to key. 

Laths over doors or other openings should have as few ver¬ 
tical joints as possible, so as to prevent vertical cracks in the 
plaster. If possible the laths should extend across the open¬ 
ing. 

Data on Wood Laths. —Laths are usually packed in bun¬ 
dles of 100 laths each. 

1000 laths II inches wide, spaced f inch 
about 480 square feet. 

1000 laths If inches wide, spaced \ inch 
about 530 square feet. 

1000 laths II inches wide, spaced f inch 
about 570 square feet. 

1000.laths If inches wide, spaced f inch 
about 530 square feet. 

1000 laths If inches wide, spaced f inch 
about 570 square feet. 

1000 laths II inches wide, spaced f inch 
about 620 square feet. 

1000 laths dry weighs about 500 lbs. 

1000 laths green or wet weighs about 950 lbs. 

A good lather will put on from 1200 to 1700 laths in 8 hours. 

Metal Lathing. —There are a number of different metal 
or wire laths now on the market. The metal lath being an 
expanded or perforated strip of sheet metal, while the wire 
lath is made of wire woven together. The wire lath is usually 
stiffened with round rods or V-shaped strips of metal woven 
in the mesh of the lath every 6 or 7 inches. 

The wire lath is sold in rolls of various widths from 16 inches 
to 49 inches* and is made of No. 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22 gauge 
wire. 

Wire lath is usually painted or galvanized to prevent rust¬ 
ing. If marked “Galvanized” it means that the lath has been 
galvanized after weaving, but if marked “Galvanized Material,” 
it indicates the lath is made from wire that was galvanized 
before weaving. The lath that has been galvanized after weav¬ 
ing is stiffer than the other, as the galvanizing solders the wire 
rigid at each intersection. 

Expanded Metal Lathing. —Expanded metal lath is made 
by cutting and expanding strips of sheet metal. The strips 


apart, will cover 
apart,^will cover 
apart, will cover 
apart, will cover 
apart, will cover 
apart, will cover 


LATHING AND FURRING. 


289 


being expanded to several times their original width. Metal 
lath is packed in bundles of usually 20 sheets, each sheet con¬ 
taining about 1 square yard. 

Expanded metal lath should be put on so the slope of the 
ribs of the lath is downward toward to studding. Fig. 170 
shows the right and the wrong 
way of putting on expanded 
metal lath. 

Metal lath should always be 
coated to prevent rusting. It 
is usually so coated at the fac¬ 
tory before shipping. A good 
coating for metal lath is made 
of coal-tar cut with benzine. 

To coat the lath fill a trough 
with the liquid and dip the lath 
in bundles, then set away to 
dry. In all angles where wood 
or terra-cotta partitions join 
the main wall of the building 
there should be a strip of the 
metal lath bent in the angle and 
extending out on each side 
about 6 inches and securely 
fastened; this will prevent any 
cracks in the angles after the 
plastering is done. 

Corner Beads. —Metal cor¬ 
ner beads should be used on all 

external angles, and care must be taken in setting them to 
get them straight and fastened solid. 

Data on Wire and Metal Lath.—Wire lath is usually put 
up in rolls containing a length of about 50 yards. 

1 pound of f-inch staples will fasten on about 10 yards of 
wire or metal lath. 

1 keg of |-inch staples will fasten on about 1000 yards of 
wire or metal lath. 

A sheet of metal lath usually contains 1 square yard with 
an allowance for lap. 

Wire or metal lath should be fastened every 4 incher on all 
bearings. 



T?loor 


of Applying Metal 


r rong \ 
Lath. 











290 


LATHING AND FURRING. 


All wire, staples, etc., used to fasten wire or metal lath, 
should be galvanized to prevent rusting. 

Studding, joist, etc., for wire and metal lath should never 
be spaced more than 16 inches on centres, and 12 inches will 
make a better job. 

To make a minimum carload of 30,000 lbs. of metal lath, 
it requires, for each of the gauges, about the following: 


10,700 yards of No. 28 gauge. 

9,700 “ “ No. 27 “ 


9,000 yards of No. 26 gauge. 

6,700 “ “ No. 24 •• 


Weights, etc., of Wire Lath. — Number. —The number of 
the wire lath indicates the size of the wire; the numbers refer 
to the gauge as follows: 


No. 18 = 0.047 inch in diameter 

“ 19 = 0.041 “ “ “ 

“ 20 = 0.035 “ “ “ 

** 21=0.032 “ “ “ 

“ 22 = 0.028 “ “ u 


No. 20 lath is more generally used than any other size. 

Mesh. —The term “mesh” in connection with wire lath is 
the distance from centre to centre of the wires and not the 
space between them. The mesh is usually designated by the 
number to the inch thus: 


2X2 mesh means wires \ inch centre to centre. 

2£X2£ “ “ “ f “ “ “ “ 

3 X3 lt il (( i ** “ 11 

2^X4 tl | “ “ “ , measuring 

along the warp, and \ inch centre to centre measuring along the 
filling. 


The 2^X2| (meshes to the inch) lath is adapted to all plas¬ 
ters containing the usual proportion of hair or fibre. It is 
the standard mesh. 

The regular close-warp, 2^X4 mesh, is adapted to the hard 
plasters, such as King’s Windsor cement, Adamant, and the 
like. Painted or galvanized lath should generally be used in 
connection with special plaster compounds. 

The 3X3 mesh is also adapted to the hard plasters and is 
a trifle less expensive than the regular close warp. 


LATHING AND FURRING. 


291 


The hard plasters can also be applied to the 2£x2£ mesh 
wire lath. 

Width .—Wire lath can be furnished to order in any re¬ 
quired width up to ten feet. In widths less than 18 inches 
there is a small charge for “stripping.” Before ordering, it 
is very important to ascertain the proper width, especially in 
stiffened lath, as it is desirable to have the edges of the lath 
join at supports when applied to woodwork, and lap at sup¬ 
ports when laced to iron furring. When the lath is not of 
the proper width the results will not be so good and there is 
liable to be a waste of material. 

The standard width of plain and of V-rib stiffened lath is 
36 inches. When beams or studs are spaced 16 inches centre 
to centre the lath should be 32 or 49 inches wide. 

Weight of Youngstown Corrugated Expanded Metal 

Lath. 


No. 28. Corrugated expanded lath, 2\ lbs. per square yard. 


No. 27. 

(t 

( i 

it o l it it a 

To 

a 

No. 26. 


( C 

V t / g 2 11 ii ii 

11 

No. 24. 

it 

(C 

a << << “ 

if 


Weight of Herringbone Expanded Steel Lath. 


GRADE A AND AA. 


28 gauge. . . 


27 “ .... 

. 3 | “ “ “ “ “ 

26 “ .... 

a a a a it 


GRADE B AND BB. 

28 gauge . .. . 


27 “ .... 

2 i << << ft a 

26 “ .... 

. 2\ 11 “ “ 

24 “ . . . . 

. 3 | il “ “ 


Weight of Berger’s Key-lock Expanded Metal Lath. 


No. 27 gauge.3^ lbs. per square yard 

“ 26 “ .:. 3* “ “ “ 












292 


LATHING AND FURRING. 


Weight of “Acme” Sheet-metal Lath. 

(Made in sheets 15X96 inches.) 

Grade A, 30 gauge.3A lbs. per square yard 

“ B, 29 “ .. 4rV " “ “ 

“ C 27 “ . 4 “ “ “ “ 


Weight, etc., of Expanded Metal Lath. 






Size of 

Sheets 

Yards 

Weight 


Grade. 


Gauge. 

Sheet. 

in 

in 

per 

Yard. 

Pounds. 





Inches. 

Bundle. 

Bundle. 

A. 

Government standard. . . 

24 

18X96 

9 

12 

5 k 

C. 

Standard mesh 


27 

16X96 

9 

10$ 

3 15 

D. 

Diamond mesh 

/ narrow 
[ strand 

} 24 

21X96 

9 

14 

3 

D. 

Diamond mesh 

f broad 
{ strand 

} 24 

24X96 

9 

16 

31 


Weight, etc., of Sykes Metal Lath. 

Expanded cup lath, 28 gauge, weighs 3 lbs. per sq. yd. 

“ “ “ 27 “ “ 3-Ito3£ “ ‘f “ 

“ “ “ 26 “ “ 3| to 4 “ “ “ “ 

“ “ “ 24 “ “ 4i to 5 “ “ “ “ 

✓ ■ . ' • ‘ 

Sykes Trough Lath. 

28 gauge weighs 51 to 5| lbs. per sq. yd. 

27 “ “ 5| to 6 “ “ “ “ 

26 “ if 6^ to 7 “ “ “ “ 

24 “ “ 7} to 8 “ “ “ “ 

Metal Furring. —Metal furring is generally used for form¬ 
ing the shape of pilasters, columns, false beams, etc. The 
shape is usually formed by brackets made of flat or small 
channel irons bent to the desired shape, and fastened in place 
with bolts, clamps, etc. To these brackets or forms are fas¬ 
tened longitudinal ribs of round or flat iron, and over this 
frame is bent and fastened the wire or metal lath, the lath 
being wired fast to the iron frame. 

All the iron brackets, ribs, etc., used for furring should 
have a heavy coat of paint to keep the iron from rusting. 

Figs. 171, 172, and 173 show method of putting up metal 
furring. The brackets and ribs of all furring should be fas- 














LATHING AND FURRING V 293 



/ 


Fig. 171.—Columns and Girder Furring. 












































































































































































































































































Fia. 175.—Tool for Bending Bracket. 






























MATERIALS FOR MAKING PLASTER. 


295 


tened as firm and rigid as possible to prevent any cracking 
in the finished plastering and stucco work. 

Bending of Brackets for Furring. —A good method of 
bending brackets for furring is illustrated by Fig. 174. On 
a bench or table mark out the shape of the bracket as shown, 
then at each angle and around the curves bore holes in the bench 
or table top in which to insert iron pins, as the bracket is bent. 

When many brackets of the same, shape are to be bent or 
formed these holes should be made large enough in which 
to drive short pieces of about £-inch gas-pipe. These pieces 
of pipe should be driven down flush with the bench top, thus 
forming a casing to each hole and will prevent the holes from 
wearing large or irregular by much use. A number of pins 
should now be cut to insert in these pipes as the bracket is 
bent, and wooden plugs can be driven in the pipes to a certain 
depth to prevent the pins from dropping through the pipe. 

To bend the bracket, place a strip of flat or channel iron 
between the two pins at 1, Fig. 174, and with a monkey-wrench 
or a tool, as shown by Fig. 175, bend the iron around the pin 
at 2, to the position indicated by the dotted lines A. Now 
insert pin 3 and bend into position shown at B, insert pin 4 
and bend to position C; insert pin 5 and bend to position D. 
Continue thus until all angles and turns are made and the 
bracket completed. By this method all the brackets will be alike. 

A “break" for bending metal lath is described on page 150. 

Materials for Making Plaster. 

Lime. —Lime for making mortar for plastering should be 
the very best quality and free from all dirt. It should slake 
readily so there will be no unslaked particles of lime in the 
mortar to slake after it is put on the wall. If this happens 
the small pieces of lime swelling and slaking will cause small 
qnepes of the plaster to fall off, leaving “pits" or holes. The 
lime should be slaked at least a week before being put on the wall. 

All lime used for plastering should be freshly burned and 
should not have been exposed to the air to cause it to “air 
slack" and render it unfit for use. 

When wet with water it should slake readily into a smooth, 
fine paste or putty. The lime should slake by simply immers¬ 
ing it in the water, although stirring it will hasten it somewhat. 

For a more complete description of lime, see page 80. 


296 


MATERIALS FOR MAKING PLASTER'. 


Hydrated Lime. —Hydrated lime is lime that has been 
partially slaked by means of steam and reduced to a powder 
without giving it moisture enough to form a paste. 

Hydrated lime is much used for the white coat of plaster, 
and gives a superior finish. A finish of hydrated lime is not 
so liable to have “pits,” “hair cracks,” etc., as the lime slaked 
in the ordinary way. Hydrated lime is usually brought to 
the work in sacks and should be wet or mixed the night before 
using, then as used it can be “gauged” up with plaster of 
Paris ready for use. 

Sand. —The sand should be sharp and angular, free from 
any dirt or oil or anything to stain the plaster. When sea sand 
is used it must be thoroughly washed with fresh water so as 
to remove all salt. 

For further information on sand see page 79. 

Hair and Fibre. —These are used in the mortar to form a 
bond and bind the sheet of mortar together. Cattle hair is 
generally used, but of late years jute and several fibre prod¬ 
ucts have been used satisfactorily to a great extent. 

Recent tests made to show the relative strength of manila 
hemp, sisal hemp, jute, and goats’ hair show manila fibre is 
the strongest binder for plaster, the others ranking as follows: 
sisal fibre, jute fibre, and goats’ hair. 

Plaster of Paris. —-Plaster of Paris is prepared by grinding 
and heating natural gypsum in a furnace so as to drive off its 
water of crystallization. Plaster of Paris owes its value to 
the property it possesses of absorbing water and passing into 
the water-soaked condition, in doing which it sets into a hard 
mass. This setting takes place quickly, but sufficient time 
elapses between mixing it with water and setting to permit 
it to be run into moulds or for coating surfaces, and to gauge 
the skim or finish-ooat and for running cornices, centre-pieces, 
and other ornamental work. Plaster of Paris should be kept 
in a dry place, as it readily absorbs moisture. 

Patent or Hard Plasters. —There are a number of hard 
or patent plasters on the market and sold under various names, 
as Adamant, King’s Windsor, Rock Wall, Granite, Elastic 
Pulp, Ideal, Elyria Wood, Kallolite, Imperial Wall, etc. 

The composition of the various plasters is pretty much the 
same, the hardness being based on the plaster of Paris or 
gypsum used in their manufacture. These plasters give good 
satisfaction and make a hard durable job of plastering. For 


MATERIALS FOR MAKING PLASTER. 


297 


quick- work or for use in cold weather they are preferable to 
lime plaster, as they will set and harden much quicker. 

The manufacturers of patent or hard plasters usually'pre¬ 
pare a white finish for finishing their wall plaster. This is 
usually a mixture of hydrated lime and plaster of Paris, with 
a retarder to hold back the setting of the plaster of Paris. 
Usually these white finishes set up very quickly, and for good 
work can be improved by adding about 10 per cent of lime 
putty; this holds back the setting and a better finish can be 
given. 

Lafarge Cement. —Lafarge cement is much used for out¬ 
side stucco-work. It should be used as follows: 

First coat: 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, 25 per cent lime 
paste, and sufficient hair. 

Second coat: 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 10 percent lime 
paste. 1 barrel of cement and 3 of sand will cover about 
34 square yards f inch thick. 

Keene’s Cement. —This cement, or plaster, is made by re¬ 
calcining plaster of Paris after soaking it in a solution of 
alum; it is used for wainscot, base, caps, etc., and also for 
hard finish. 

The first coat is composed of 1 part cement, L part lime 
paste, and 3 parts sand. 

The second coat of 1 part cement, 1 part lime paste, and 4 
parts sand. 

Patent Soapstone Finish. —This is a finish coat manu¬ 
factured by the American Soapstone Finish Co., Chester Depot, 
Vt. It is a soft blue in color, and makes a very good finish. 
It is also put up in various colors. When colored it is shipped 
in kegs wet ready for use. 

Applying Plaster.—When doing a job of plastering the 
plasterer should examine the grounds as he goes along with 
his work to see that they are solid and straight. The plasterer 
is supposed to work to the grounds, and if the grounds have 
been put in place by a careless carpenter and are crooked, 
then the plastering will be crooked. 

All grounds should be examined just before putting on the 
first coat of plastering, and if any are found not straight 
the carpenter should be called to go over and straighten 
them. 

All stone, brick, and terra-potta walls should be thoroughly 
drenched with water before applying the first coat of mortar, 


298 


APPLYING PLASTER. 


and if a stud wall with dry wooden lath, it also should be thor¬ 
oughly wet. 

The plasterer should ascertain from the carpenter if the 
grounds have been set the exact size of the wood jambs, etc., 
and if no allowance has been made for the white coat, he should 
work, the brown coat down so the skim or white coat will come 
flush with the grounds. It is better for the carpenter to set 
his grounds about £ inoh narrower than the finished work, 
as this will then allow for the thickness of the skim coat. 

When plastering all the openings of the building should be 
closed to prevent wind and draughts from drying out the plaster 
too quick. This is especially urgent when the skim coat is 
being put on; if there is much wind it will dry too fast and cause 
small hair cracks. 

If from any cause there is any part of a wall that cannot be 
finished when the skim coat is applied, it is best to leave this 
wall to be finished at a future time and stop the other work 
at the corner or angle; work finished afterwards to an angle 
or corner will not show the joint between the two finishes. 

When plastering below the base grounds the plasterer should 
take especial care to get the plaster straight and plumb, so 
the carpenter will have no trouble when he comes to put down 
the base; care should also be taken at all angles to get them 
straight and square. 

In putting on the skim coat sufficient troweling should be 
given to bring it to a smooth glossy surface. By looking 
along the finished walls where the light strikes them one can 
tell if they have a good finish; there should be no trowel- or 
brush-marks on the finished surface. 

Lime Plaster. —Lime and sand plaster should be made up 
at least a week before it will be required for use. Ordinarily 
the hair is mixed with the mortar when it is made up, but on 
first-class work it should be added when the mortar is mixed 
for use. 

When the hair is added to the mortar when the lime is first 
slaked there is danger of the hot lime burning the hair and 
causing it to rot. 

The proportions of lime and sand to use for making lime 
mortar for plastering will vary, according to the quality of 
the lime used, the average mixtures being about as follows: 


APPLYING PLASTER. 


299 


Lime Plaster. 

Scratch Coat. —1 bbl. lime, 7 bbl. sand, 2 pounds hair or 
fibre. 

Brown Coat.— 1 bbl. lime, 8 bbl. sand, 1 pound hair or fibre. 

Lime-cement Plaster. 

Scratch Coat. —1 bbl. lime, 12 bbl. sand, pounds hair or 
fibre. 

Gauging. —Add 1 part Portland cement to 4 parts of the above 
mortar. 

Brown Coat. —1 bbl. lime, 14 bbl. sand. 

Gauging. —Add 1 part Portland cement to 4 parts of the above 
mortar. 

Lime-cement Plaster for Exterior Work. 

Scratch Coat. —1 bbl. lime, 12 bbl. sand, 2 pounds hair or 
fibre. 

Gauging. —Add 1 part Portland cement to 3 parts of above 
mortar. 

Finishing Coat. —1 part Portland cement, 2\ parts sharp 
sand or crushed granite. 

Patent or Hard Plasters. —Patent or hard plasters are a 
product of gypsum rock, ground to a suitable fineness', calcined 
for elimination of a certain percentage of the combined mois¬ 
ture and the addition of some property to interfere with the 
rapid crystallization, or to retard the setting of the plaster 
to give time for the plasterers to trowel, and work the plaster 
to the desired finish. 

These plasters are usually prepared for use by the addition 
of clean water only, having the proper proportion of cleaned 
and dried sand added and mixed by machine. 

Some plasters have asbestos fibre, fire-clay, or hydrated 
lime added, and which are claims for improvement by the various 
manufacturers. 

Patent or hard plaster for use on wood or metal lath must 
have a fibre mixed with it to act as a binder to hold the wet 
plaster in the crevices of the lath until the plaster has set. 

Patent plasters attain their natural strength in from 24 
to 48 hours after water has been added. 

Patent plasters do not dry, they set first; hence they 
cannot be retempered and worked over. 


a- 


300 USE OF HARD OR PATENT PLASTERS. 

Do not let patent plaster dry out quickly by heat or wind; 
the moisture should not be evaporated. The plaster sets, 
and this moisture is required to cause crystallization. 

Lime-water or alum-water makes patent plaster set more 
quickly. 

Citric acid dissolved in water, or glue-water, will retard the 
setting of patent plaster. 

Grounds. —Grounds for patent plaster should be f inch 
for wood lath, \ or f inch for brick or tile, f inch over face of 
wire or metal lath. 

Directions for Applying Patent or Hard-wall Plasters. 

—As nearly all patent or hard-wall plasters are of about the 
same composition the following directions for their use are 
given: 

General Directions for Mixing and Applying Patent 
or Hard Plasters. —Base Coats .— Mix in water-tight box 
about 3^ by 7 feet, raised about 4 inches at one end. If an 
old box is used, be sure that it is free from dirt and lumps 
of old cemCnt. Put the dry plaster in raised end and water 
in lower end and hoe former into water, mixing thoroughly 
as you go along. Mix thin at first, as this insures free chem¬ 
ical action and prevents the material from getting lumpy. 
Stiffen with dry plaster and work to the proper consistency. 
Do not mix up more material than can be handily used in about 
one hour. Clean box after each gauging and do not mix one 
batch with another. In applying on wood lath, lay on lightly, 
filling up grounds as you go along. Sprinkle lightly with water 
to prevent tearing under darby. Straighten with rod and darby, 
and before leaving finally, use the float, knocking off bumps 
and filling up cat-faces, but do not water floaty as you are liable 
to kill face of work. 

Dry wood lath should be wet before applying mortar, as 
otherwise they are liable to buckle. 

On brick or tile, it is well to set work liberally before plas¬ 
tering. For repair work, soak old lath with water before plas¬ 
tering. 

Finish Coats . —In gauging finish coats, it is essential that 
mixing box and water should be clean. Use about a bucket 
and a half of water to each sack of finish, putting the dry 
plaster in raised end of box and hoeing it into water and mixing 
same as before. Work the mixture thoroughly until there are 
no bubbles or lumps left in it, and see that tools are kept per- 


•USE OF HARD OR PATENT PLASTERS. 301 


fectly clean. Finish coats should be gauged thin, and can 
be carried in buckets instead of the hod. 

In applying trowel finishes, go over the wall the first time 
and grind in just as thin as possible, thoroughly covering the 
ground. Three or fouf men can in this way go over a large 
ceiling before coming back to cover up. It is essential that 
this first coat should have time to draw, and it is very easy 
to find out when this has taken place, as you will find it full 
of thousands of little holes, showing that the material has 
gone into the base coat and expelled the air. If covered up 
before this air has been expelled it will blister and give no 
end of trouble, and be very hard to lay down. After this go 
over the wall a second time, laying doAvn the material, then 
thin up stuff on board and go over the wall a third time, finish¬ 
ing as near as possible, using damp brush and trowel. Brush 
off lightly with a damp brush and do not drench with water, 
as that would take the face off and kill the material. Work 
top and bottom together. 

In applying float finishes, lay on with trowel and then use 
float, bringing the work to a true and* even surface. Use as 
little water as possible, so as to avoid killing the surface. 
These float finishes may be applied while the work is still green 
or half dry. 

Summer Work .—In hot, dry weather, especially if windy, 
close all openings in building while plastering to prevent the 
drying out of material before chemical action has taken place, 
or, in other words, before it has set. In cases wherg this has 
occurred, however, the difficulty is easily remedied by wetting 
thoroughly with clean water until the material has taken 
enough water to set it. 

Winter Work .—Keep the building in which you are working 
just above the freezing-point while plastering and 24 hours 
after finishing. 

As these directions may vary slightly from the directions 
of some manufacturers, the plasterer should obtain a set of 
directions from the manufacturer of the particular brand of 
plaster he intends to use. 

Pulp or Fibre Plasters. —These plasters are made of a 
composition somewhat similar to the patent or hard plasters, 
and then have added a wood fibre or pulp instead of sand, 
as is used in the patent plasters. The fibrous wood gives the 
plaster elasticity, toughness, lightness, and strength. 


302 USE OF HARD OR PATENT PLASTERS. 


The following directions for the working of these plasters 
are given: 

Directions for Using Pulp or Fibre Plaster. —Grounds. 
—Lay grounds f inch for both lath and plaster. This will 
leave \ inch for mortar after the lath is on. 

Lath. —Nail all lath on firmly, with l inch space between 
lath for key or clinch. 

Mixing Boxes. —Use one or two tight boxes of convenient 
size, say 6X3X1 feet each, placing them on the floor that 
is to be plastered. 

Tender. —One tender can care for two plasterers. Place 
scaffold in room ready to do the ceiling first; measure the 
number of yards in the ceiling, and put plaster in box, using 
10 to 12 pounds of plaster for each square yard of ceiling. 
Each full sack contains 80 pounds. Mix for this room ceiling 
all at one time (for a common-sized room). Mix for one side 
wall all in one batch, etc. Mix with clean water until it is 
alike all through and just as thin as it can be made to stay 
on the lath. The thinner the mortar is the easier it will work 
and the better the wall will be. Do not mix the material 
until the plasterers are ready to use it. Always keep mortar 
boxes absolutely clean after each batch of mortar, not trying 
to mix in with a new batch any mortar that has been par¬ 
tially set. 

Tools. —Plasterers’ tools to use are hawk, trowel, float, and 
darby. 

Plasterers. —Do your ceiling first. Skim your trowel over 
,the lath , using a small quantity of material , with a little pressure 
to push in the clinch , which on-all walls should only go through 
the lath, and need not lap over the same. Immediately plaster 
on to \ inch thick, use darby for angles and corners, and at 
once float with a firm, even pressure, until ceiling is level, 
filling all cat-faces, then slick over with the trowel. In one 
hour this will be in the putty stage, when it can be troweled 
until as smooth as desired. Do not use the brush and water. 
All the water needed will work to the surface under the trowel. 
All labor put on while there is too much moisture is worse 
than wasted, as it disturbs the set of the mortar. 

Next prepare for the side wall. One man on scaffold and 
one below, as carrying both top and bottom at one and 
the same time will avoid any joint and give a perfect wall. 
This room can be finished before leaving it. 


VARIOUS WORK DONE BY PLASTERERS. 303 


Skim Coat. —This is. not needed and only means a waste of 
material and loss of valuable time, and does not improve the 
wall. When a skim coat is desired, it can be applied at once, 
before the first coat has fully set. 

If an absolutely white wall is desired, leave the pulp plaster 
under the float, floating until level, and when in putty stage 
stipple by patting with a rice root brush. When the lath as 
well as the plaster is fully dried, apply the common lime and 
plaster of Paris putty coat, or any of the first-class finish coats. 

For use on brick wall wet the wall thoroughly and have 
mortar just as thin as possible to handle. Finish as you go. 

For use on metal lath mix thoroughly, leave as stiff as you 
can handle. 

Cornices and Mouldings. —Cornices, mouldings, etc., are 
usually run with a mould made of sheet iron and cut the reverse 
contour of the mouldings to be run. 

Strips of wood are tacked around 
the walls and ceiling to form a guide 
to run the mould along. These 
moulds are usually made to set. at 
right angles to the mouldings, thus 
leaving a space the width of the 
moulding or cornice at all angles 
which have to be worked out by Fig. 176.—Cornice Mould, 
hand. If the mould is made to set 

at an angle of 45°, or a true mitre with the moulding and the 
mould made to correspond with the profile of the mouldings 
orj this angle, then the mould can be run in close to all angles. 
Fig. 176 shows how this mould is made and used. 

Stucco. —This name is now usually given work done with 
plaster of Paris, such as cornices, centre pieces, mouldings, 
etc. All such work should be run before the skim or finish 
coat of plaster is put on, so the skim coat can be finished up 
to the cornice or moulding. 

The best plaster of Paris should be used for all such work, 
and should be gauged with enough lime putty or hydrated 
lime to retard the setting of the plaster to give sufficient time 
for working. 

There are several chemical retarders now on the market 
for this purpose. 

Centre-pieces of leaves, foliage, etc., brackets, anql orna¬ 
ments are usually cast in moulds and stuck in place with soft 








304 VARIOUS WORK DONE BY PLASTERERS. 


plaster of Paris. In addition to the plaster they should be 
fastened with brass or copper wire holdfasts wherever possible. 

Outside Stucco-work. —This is the name usually given to 
exterior plastering, and is generally done with cement mortar. 
Care should be taken to keep any outside work from freezing, 
or from being dried too fast with the heat; it should be shaded 
to protect it from the sun, and wetting it two or three times a 
day for several days will improve it. 

If the wall to which cement stucco is to be applied is of 
concrete or brick and presents a rough surface, it should be 
thoroughly wet and the mortar applied with a trowel, using 
as much force as possible; but if the wall presents a smooth 
surface the mortar should be made of a softer consistency 
and applied by throwing it against the wall by the handfull; 
this dash coat should be let set before any troweling is done 
or the second coat applied. 

Rough Cast Finish. —If a rough cast finish is desired with 
the finish coat of stucco it should be applied with a broom 
made of fine twigs or .splints, as follows: Dip the broom in 
the mortar and stand about 2 feet from the wall, and holding 
the broom in one Hand and a stick in the other, strike the 
broom against the stick, thus throwing the mortar off the 
broom on to the wall in a spray giving the desired roughness; 
this work of course requires some little practice. All stucco¬ 
work should be wet several times daily for several days; this 
will cause a harder finish and prevent streaks from showing 
between the different days’ work. 

Scagliola. —This is a material made of plaster and other 
ingredients to imitate the different marbles. It is used for 
base, wainscot, columns, etc. The base or first coat of plaster 
should be of a patent or hard plaster and should have a binder 
of hair or fibre. After the rough or first coat of plaster is per¬ 
fectly dry the second coat and colors are then applied. This 
last coat should be of Keen’s cement, or plaster of Paris, mixed 
with glue-water. After the finish coat and colors are dry, it is 
polished by rubbing first with pumice stone, then with tripoli 
(an earthy substance) followed with pulverized charcoal, and 
finally polished with a rubber of felt dipped in linseed-oil. Scag¬ 
liola is usually made in slabs and put in place like marble. 

Pebble Dash. —The first coat of this work is applied similar 
to that for rough casting, and after this coat has started to 
set the seoond coat is applied, as soft as can be worked. Imme- 


VARIOUS WORK DONE BY PLASTERERS. 305 


diately while this coat is soft the pebbles which have been 
mixed with cement mortar to give them a cement coating, 
are thrown against the wall with force enough to imbed them 
in the mortar. They can also be forced in with the trowel, 
so as to give a uniform appearance. The pebbles should be 
imbedded about half their bulk in the mortar. After the 
mortar has set the entire wall should be given a coat of thin 
cement wash applied with a brush. 

Designs in Pebble Dash. —Designs can be worked out 
with the pebbles of different sizes or colors by placing them 
by hand; or panel designs, numbers, etc., can be made as follows: 
On a board spread a layer of stiff clay, and in this clay press 
the pebbles about one half their bulk and forming the design 
in the reverse as desired in the wall. After the design is com¬ 
pleted the board and clay in which the pebbles are bedded 
is placed in the desired position with the projecting pebbles 
against the soft cement stucco, and pressed firmly against it, so 
as to press the projecting pebbles into the soft mortar. After the 
cement mortar hardens for about 48 hours, the clay is washed 
away from the pebbles leaving the desired design in the wall. 

, Papier Mache. —This is a composition of paper which has 
been reduced to a pulp, and mixed with glue, size, or other 
substance, so that it can be readily cast or moulded in any 
form desired. It is used for decorating ceilings, walls, etc., 
and is also prepared for outside use where it should be given 
several coats of paints to preserve it from the weather. 

Carton Pierre. —This is a name given a variety of paper 
mach6 which is made especially to imitate stone carving. 

Mastic. —Mastic is a plaster for outside use, prepared from 
ground limestone or cement, sand, and red lead or litharge; 
all mixed with linseed-oil, the proportions being about as 
follows: Ground limestone or cement, 5 parts; sand (clean), 5 
parts; red lead or litharge, 1 part; boiled linseed-oil, enough to 
render plastic 

The brick or stone walls to which the mastic is to be applied 
should receive two heavy coats of boiled oil and let thoroughly 
dry before the mastic is put on. 

Staff. —This composition that has had such an extensive 
use on recent fair and exposition buildings, is a mixture of plaster 
of Paris and a suitable binding material, such as manila fibre, 
hemp, etc. 

Staff is a fire-proof material inasmuch as it will withstand 


306 


ESTIMATING PLASTER WORE. 


heat and fire to a certain extent. Staff when made and applied 
correctly and used in moderate climates will prove very durable. 

Cold-water Paints. —These paints 'are made of mixtures 
of the different colored paint pigments in a powdered form 
mixed with the casein and albumen taken from skimmed milk. 
This prepared mixture is sold dry and is prepared for use by 
the addition of clean water only. It makes a better wash 
or paint than the ordinary whitewash. 

Whitewash. —Common whitewash is made by slaking fresh 
lime and adding enoiugh water to make a thin paste; by using 
2 pounds of sulphate of zinc and 1 pound of salt to each half 
bushel of lime the whitewash will be much harder and not crack. 

A half pint of linseed-oil to each gallon of whitewash will 
make it more durable for outside work. To color add to each 
bushel of lime 4 to 6 pounds of ochre for cream color; 6 to 8 
pounds amber, 2 pounds Indian red, and 2 pounds of lamp¬ 
black for fawn color; 6 to 8 pounds raw umber and 3 or 4 pounds 
lampblack for buff or stone color. 

Estimating Plaster Work. 

Lathing. —Wood lathing is usually done by the thousand, 
but is figured with the plastering at a certain price per square 
yard. For the covering capacity of wood lath, see page 288. 

- Metal lath is done by the square yard, and is also figured in 
along with the plastering. 

Plastering. —All flat surfaces, such as walls, ceilings, etc., 
are figured by the square yard, and price made according to 
the work done, as two-coat, or three-coat work; sand or hard 
white finish. 

In some parts of the country there is a rule among the plas¬ 
terers that no deductions will be made for ordinary door or 
window openings, while in other parts it is a rule to deduct 
one half of each opening. When plastering is to be paid 
for by the yard an understanding should be had regarding 
the measurement before the work is done. 

Circle, elliptical, or groined work, round corners, etc., is 
usually charged extra. 

Stucco-work, such as mouldings, cornices, etc., is done by 
the lineal foot, the price depending on the girth or size of the 
cornice or moulding. Ornaments, such as centre-pieces, 
brackets, etc., are charged by the piece, according to their 
size and enrichment. 


ESTIMATING PLASTER WORK. 307 

Plastering Data 1 barrel of lime will make about 2| 
barrels of paste. 

1 barrel of hair weighs about 15 pounds. 

1 barrel of lime, 18 cubic feet of sand, and 22 pounds of hair 
will brown-coat about 40 yards on wooden lath with f-inch 
grounds, or about 32 yards on brick or terra-cotta walls with 
f-inch grounds, or about 30 yards on wire or metal lath. 

1 barrel of lime, 1 barrel of plaster of Paris, 1 barrel white 
sand will skim-coat about 140 square yards. 

First-coat mortar =1 barrel lime, 18 cubic feet sand, 1£ 
bushels hair. 

Second-coat mortar =1 barrel lime, 21£ cubic feet sand, 
| bushel hair. 

■The covering capacity of patent or hard wall plaster varies 
from 90 to 150 yards per ton. 

The pulp or fibre plasters will cover from 130 to 170 yards 
per ton. 

1 barrel of Lafarge cement and 2 of sand will cover about 
25 square yards f inch thick. 

1 ton of Keene’s cement will first-coat about 475 yards, 
or brown-coat and white hard finish about 300 yards, or first 
and second-coat about 350 yards. 

1 bag of 150 pounds of patent soapstone finish will cover 
about 45 yards. 

Plasterers’ Tables. — The following tables, giving the 
number of square yards of plaster in rooms of various sizes, 
have been prepared and copyrighted by the United States 
Gypsum Company, and are used by special permission of this 
company, subject to improvements made by the author. 

They will be found very valuable in computing the number 
of square yards of plastering in any room or building; they 
give the number of square yards and feet in several thousand 
sized rooms. Example .—To obtain the number of square yards 
in a room 12X15X7 feet, turn to the table giving measure¬ 
ments for rooms with 7 foot ceiling. In the top row of figures 
find 12, then follow this column down to the line of figures 
opposite 15 in the left-hand column where we find 62, the 
answer, or 62 square yards of plastering in the room. When 
the half foot comes in the dimensions of a room, both ways, 
take the next largest number on one side. Wlien it comes 
on one side only add one yard, and it will be close. 


NUMBER OF SQUARE YARDS AND FEET IN ROOMS WITH 7 FOOT CEILINGS. 


308 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING 


CM 

CM 


.cm CO o 

(M CM CO 


CM 


CO CM rH O 

00 CM CO 
hhCMC^ 


o 

CM 


CO rjj CM O 1> 

CDOTfioOH 
rH r—I r-H CM 


05 


CM 00 LO CM GO ^ 

05 CM CO © CO 
05 O O rH H H 


00 

rH 

o lO i —1 CO <M l''- CO 
cd lo 05 cd cd ci cd 

CiffiOOOOrt 
rH rH rH rH 


U5 00 W t» N O r-j 


tdo6rHidoooitdo5 

rH 

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rH rH rH 


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CD 

OOHTtioOH^QOHTjJ 

rH 

N00 00GC05 05 05OO 


rH rH 


CDOOi— iMiONOtN^CD 

to 

r- i H 00 >—I^NrH^NO 

rH 

l>t'~I^G0000005C5050 


rH 


CO ^ to D N GO O rH (M CO ^ 


Ldo6HHtQoHi>ocdcd 

rH 

CO CO GO 00 00 05 05 05 


CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM 

CO 

oiciidoo'-i'^hdocdcdcdcd 

rH 

LOcOCOCOt^t^t^OOOOOOOOO 


CON'HOOONCOiO^CO<Mr-iO 

CM 

cdcda5<M'dGocdcda5cdido6 

rH 

tototocDcDcot^r^r^*>aooo<X) 


CD^CMONiOCOrHGOq^C]CN 

r^ococdo6^HT^r^C5CMLOo6rHco 

Tt<tOtOtOtOcDCOCOCOt^t^I>QOaO 


CMOO^OCMGO^OCMOO^OCMOq^OCMOqiO 

CMTtH^dCMtOOOOCOCOOOT-HT^cdci 

TfTt»^LOLOiO^OcOCOCOC01>t^t^l> 


05 


O^OrHCOCMt^COOOT^O^Or-HCOCMr-HCO 

05 CM 05 CM TjJ l> d CM td O CM *0 

coco^^^TtiiotoLococococor^i^t^. 


GO 


O ^ 
CM Tj5 
CO CO 
CM to 00 


CM 


05 rH 
CM CO 


00 CO 

CO 05 
CO CO 

CM to 

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CO CO 


CM 

rH Tf* 

00 CM 

00 H 

CO 


COhiOO^OOCONOICOh 


CD 05 


r-H 

to to 


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to to 


r-H CO 

CD CD 


CD 00 rH 
CD CD In. 


tOOOCMtOGOCMtOOOCMtOOO 


CO to 


00 o 

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CM to 
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b- 05 

to to 


CM Tft CD 
CD CD CD 


cDOOi-HCOtOi>OCM 


CD 


CM Tf 
CM CM 


05 
CM CM 


H CO 
CO CO 


CD 00 
CO CO 


TfH CD 
O CM 


00 r-H 


CO to GO CM ^ CD 


05 r-H 

^ to 


CO to 
to to 


00 O CM 
to CD CD 


to 


coT^tocDt^oqOrHCMcoTt^tocDt^oqot-H 

codcMrfcDoorHcdtdt^drHcdtdt^dcM 

rHCMCMCMCMCMCOCOCOCOCOT^Tt^^TtitOtO 


CM CO ^ 

^cdoo 

to to to 




CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM 

. 

O CM 


CD 00 O 

r-H rH rH CM 


CM TtH 
CM CM 


CD 00 
CM CM 


CO CO 


^ CD 
CO CO 


CM CM 

GO o 
CO ^ 


CM CM CM CM CM CM CM 


CM 

TtH 


CD 00 


O CM 
tO to to 


CO 


CO CM H o GO 
O CM Tt< CD 


CD to Tt^ CO CM 
05 


CM 


CO to 
CM CM 


05 
CM CM 


rH CO 
CO CO 


OOONCDtO^COCMOO 

CM t*h 
Tt* tJh 


Ttn CD 
CO CO 


00 O 
CO ^ 


CD 00 


CO^tOCDt^-00 05 0 


CMcO^tocDNOOOOHCMCO^ 
hhhhhhhhCMCM CM CM CM 


The amount indicated includes side walls and ceilings. 































NUMBER OF SQUARE YARDS AND FEET IN ROOM WITH 7.6 FOOT CEILINGS. 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING 


309 


CM 

(N 


o cm co 

N h iO 

CM CO CO 



q o o o 

CM 

05 CO H 

r-H CM CM CO 

r-H rH rH r-H 

O 

CM 

nqoohq 

I-H *0 00 CM CO 

H H H CM CM 

r-H rH rH rH r-H 

05 

i-H 

^CJON*GCO 

CO t> rH T *5 00 CM 
(O’ r-H r-H rH CM 
rH rH rH rH rH rH 

* 

00 

r-H 

q q co o q co q 

CO 05 CO O Tf 00 

05 05 O O r-H rH rH 

rH rH rH rH rH 

t-H 

Nwoo^q^nq 

GO CM *0 05 co cd d CO 

00 05 05 0500 HH 
rH r-H rH rH 

CO 

rH 

N(NCOH*OO^OOCO 

1 -H *0 GO CM *0 05 cm *o *o 

00 00 00 05 0 0000 

rH rH rH 


*o 

rH 


©coqqcoqocoqq 

*0 00 1 -H *0 00 1 -H *0 00 1 -H rH 
ivt^. 00 GO GO 05 05 05 O O 

rH rH 

rH 


q oo rH cm *o o cm Tf 

CO 1 -H Tf GO 1 -H Tf 1 N rH N N 

ot^r^r^ocooooo 5 05 05 05 

CO 

rH 


hCMCO^*OONOOOhC^CM 


CM*odrH^t^o^r^dcoco 

CDCOCDt^t^t^OOG 000050505 

CM 

rH 


ooooooooooooo 


cooicd^ooorHTtirSococDoioj 

iO»OCOCOONNNOOOOOOOOOO 

- 


HOOONCDO^COCIHOOONN 

rH 

rH 


dco* 6 o 6 rHT^t^dcocdd»-H^^ 

*O*O*O*OCOCOCOl>l>l>t^G 0 C 0 G 0 



TtiMONi 0 C 0 H 00 CD't(MON> 0‘0 

O 

rH 


Tt^r^dcM*OG 6 i-Hcoddc v i*ot^dd 

^t^*o*o*o*oocdcoonnnoooo 



ooooococooocooocooqcoco 

05 

/ 

05 i-HTtit^ 05 CM* 0 t^OC 0*0 0 C'i-HC 0 c 605 
co^TtiT^Tti*o*o*ococococot^r^t^t^ 


00 


CO 
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*> cm 

00 r-H 

CM CO 


COOO^O^OrHCOMNCOOO^O 


CO 00 

CO CO 


H Tt* 


CO 05 


rH Tf 

*0 LO 


CO o H 

*0 *0 CO 


coi-h*oo^oocoi^cmco 


CO CO 
CO CO 


00 r-H 

CO ^ 


CO *0 

Tfi Tt< 


GO O 

LQ 


CO *0 GO 
10*0*0 


CO 


ococoococqococqococooco 

*o 00 © CM 

CO CO ^ 


CM 


CO 00 
CM CM 


t-h co 

CO CO 


*o b- 

Tf TiH 


05 CM ^ 
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co co 

*o © 

© CO 

CO CO 

q o 

c 6 d 

*o *o 


*OhcO 

ci CM ^ 
CO !> 

TtJ oo CO 

*ono 

CO co 


co q q 

H CO CO 
O CO CO 


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^COGOrHCO*ONOCMTf-COOOrHCC*ONOCM^CO 

d 


CM 


CO CO 
CM CM 


GO O 
CM CO 


CM *0 
CO CO 


05 

CO co 


r-H CO 


co 00 o 

Tt< Tf» *0 


CM *C 

*o *o 


NC5H 

*o *o co 


*o 


(NCO^IOCONOOOH(N 

d 


i-H co 
CM CM 


*o 

CM CM 


co 


o o 

r-H CO 


o o 

*o i> 


o o 

05 r-H 
r-H CM 


^ CO 

__ CO CO 

o o o o o o 


© cm 

CM CO 


co^*ocoNooqrH(^co 

GO o 


CO 


CM ^ CO 

Tt^ Th 


05 1-H 

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co r^. 

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co *o 

CM CM 


r— 05 
CM CM 


1 -H co 

co co 


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05 1-H CO 
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05 r-H CO 
TtH *0 *0 


C0^^C0NG005OrH(NC0^*OC0l>0Ca5OHCMC0^ 

r-H r-H r-H rH r-H r-H r-H r-H rH rH CM CM CM CM Cl 


The amount indicated includes side walls and ceilings. 














































NUMBER OF SQUARE YARDS AND FEET IN ROOMS WITH 8 FOOT CEILINGS. 


310 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING 




O rt< 

cd o 

CO CO TP 


CO t'- GO O 

rj CO I'd rH CO 

<N <N <M CO CO 

fH r-H r-H r-H 

Tfi to LO LO io" 

S ' ud oi cd tQ »-J 

; hhninco 

r-H r-H r-H r-H r-H 

CDqTt|COW rH 

rd i—i >d ci co id 

r— * O 1—1 1—1 r—1 ot Ol 

t-H t—H r-H r-H r-H r-H 

o >o co < oq cq 

oo o co id r- ? to oo cd 

r ”"* © CO r “~l H r-H (M 

rH r-H r-H r-H r-H r-H r-H 

(N cdcicot^OTfoo 

^ OC5C500HHH 

r-H rH r—H r-H r-H 

cqoqTfo^o--Hcqcsi^. 

'P id oo cd cd o> cd cd © cd 

GO 00 05 05 05 O O i-H: rH 

r-H r-H rH rH 

cqt^CQcor-juqO'^oocq 
*3 cd r-J lo od cd lo 05 cd id os 

l> 00 00 00 05 05 C5 o o o 

i—l r-l rH 

iqcqcqiqoq<Niqoq<Niqoq 
^ i-iTjiodrHTjiooHrjiodHH 

1-1 tH |> 00 00 00 05 05 05 o o 

r-H r-H 

OC^^OCOt-hcO^O^OC^t*h 
£ 2 lOOOrH^t^rHTjHNO^NO 

^ OCCNNNOOOOOOOOiCiO 

✓ # rH 

cqt^oqO’-;c^cqr^iqcot^ooo 

£2 oO'-HT^GO'-d^’t^ocdcooicdco 

I0c0c0c0t^t^t>000000000505 

10*0^0*0*0*0*0*0*0*0*0^0*010 

^ ci^ooH^^o^odciioooH 

rH iOiOiOcD0ONNI>NGOOOOCOi 

* 

cqiq'^cq<NrHOoqt>cq^OTficocMrH 

5 cdc5cdioo6HTjicdo5cduoo6»-3rji|> 

-xf rjn to io lO CO CO CO CO t'- 1> t'- 00 00 GO 

P^^COHOOCO^WONIOCO^OOCO 
oj HcocooscdTjitQocdcoodrHrtitQoscd 

■rt l '^'^t lT f l O l O l OcOcOCOCOl>l>it^l>00 

iq<NOO»qoloqiq<NcoiO<NCOiO<NGOiO<N 

00 ujooocdcoooH'^coajcdTjiiQocdtdoo 

WCO^^^^tOiOiOiOOCOcONiOt^N 

COOO^O^HO(NNCOOO^O^OrHGO(MN 

^ oc^^oodco^oodcoiooOHcocoooHco 

COCOCOCO^^^^^^iOiOCCDOCONN 

cq cn cq i-j iq o oq cq b- to co th lo © ^ oo co 

<£> iotQocdiotdooirtitQo5cdT^tQo5cdTtHcoo5 

(M (M ro CO CO "T Tt^ Tf rj^ I.Q LQ »0 O C C O 

iq 00 CQiq 0 qO|i 0 > 00 (NiO 00 <NiO 00 <N»O 00 <NiO 00 

10 o cd lo tQ 05 cd Tf cd 05 <-d cd co oo o co td o cd rji 

CS<M<M(N(MCOCOCOCO''f''+i^fiTtiLOiOiOLOCOCOCO 

OC^TjHcqoOrHCO^t^OOtr^OOOrHCOiiOt^OfMrti 

cdooocdTtif>io5rHcdcdo6ocdTtitQo5i-3cdcdo6o 

HH(M(N(N(M(MCOCOCOCO' , ^T^Tt<'^^i^LOiO l OCD 

cor>.Gqo^o|cqT^Lqcqt^oqO’-H<Mco'ch‘Ocoj>ooo 
w i-iedioo6ocdTticdodcdcdTtitdo5'-Icd‘dtdo5i-icd<cd 

lrHOlOJCd(N(NCOCOCOCOCO' , ctH^t |, ^t | Ttl'rtiLOUOtO 


CO^^ONOOOOhC1CO^iOcDNOOOOh(Nco^ 

hhhhhhhhhhC^CIC^CIC^ 


The amount indicated includes side walls and ceilings. 

















































NUMBER OF SQUARE YARDS AND FEET IN ROOM WITH 8.6 FOOT CEILINGS. 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING, 311 


<N 

136.8 

141.2 

145.5 

H 

<N 

CO iO (> o 

oo oi co th 
<N CO CO 

rH rH H H 

3 

© rH C<J CO TF 

© oo oi co 

(N (N (M CO CO 

rH rH rH rH H 

O 

rH 

00 00 00 00 00 00 

rH to © CO rH 

H H H Cl CO 

rH H rH rH rH rH 

00 

rH 

© 00 l> cD^O^CO 

Th 1^1 rH lO © CO I> 
0©hhh(NC1 

tH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

rH 

COHOOCD^C^HN 

co©cor^i-H^o©(N 

0©©© HH Hd 

•rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

CO 

rH 

oo^qoqioctoqLoq 

oocdcDoicoi^O'^oo 

(X)0)0)0500hhh 

rH rH rH rH rH 

KO 

rH 

ociNcooq^oiOHCD 

iHioo6oi^o©coco©co 

OOOOGOOOC^©©HH 
rH rH rH rH 

rH 

COrHiqO^OOCONNCDrH 

Hoor-HLooorHiooocdiooi 

t>N 00 00 00 05 05 0>000 

rH rH rH 

CO 

rH 

oqppoopiooqc^poqpp 

L«» rH Js. rH L* rH Tf 4 L"* H 

©l>t^t^00 00 00©©©©© 

iH rH 

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rH 

co^ot>-oc^T}Hcqoq’-Hcoioi>p 

h^NH^'^ocONOCOCOO 

coco^i>r>-i>oooooooiOia:o 

rH 

rH 

rH 

OhNCO^iOOnoOOhNW^ 

LocoH^t^ocoooicocDaicdio 

iaioo«ocot>i>i>*i>GOQOooa>Ci 

o 

rH 

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o6rH^^©COcd©(N^Oo6rHTf*t^© 

Tfu0*O*O©©©©l>I>l>*Q000Q0© 

© 

OOONCOiO^COMtHOCqbiO^^CO 

WOOOOHTjJNdwcod^^NOCOCO 

Ttt'^'^iOLOiOOtOCOCDI>l>t^OOOOGO 

oo 

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t^©*o L oo6rHTt5c6cic s i^6t^ococo©rH 


oo^O(Mooio(Noqppoqp(Noqppoqpp 

rHT^^C^C^lOr^cJcO^OOOrHCOCOC^HTtlt^- 

COCOCO^^^^^O^O^O^OCO©©©^!^^ 

CO 

CNNCOOO'tO l O'HONNCOOO T tO l CHCO 

cdoi’-^ ,, ^050jc4nt^oi<NTt5t^C5(M* l Ol>0(N 

NNfOfOCOMT!'Tt<^^iOiO‘O l OCO©ONN 

to 

C0Hi0©^00C0NdcDHi0©^00C0NClOH 

rHT^CO©rH©©GG’-^COCO 06 rHCOL 006 ©CO l OCO 

C s lC s ^OlC^C0C0C0C0^'^t ( ' T t <T t ,l O L O k ^ l ^ ) ©© 1 ^^ 


ooc^n5ooc^ioco(Npoq(N>-ooqC'i‘Ocop‘o<x)pio 

doinMOcodcociNoci^Noi^^dcoHM 

CO 

COiOt^OC^^CDOO^piCt- ; 0(NTtHpCOr- : cOiOt- : q 

cdTticoo>HcoiOf^Oc s; iHocjHcoiot>^oc^i , 5 , oq5 

r _,^^ H iHC^C^(>l(MCOCOCOCOCO^'^ l '^t l,: t ll O L 0 L 0 1 0 L 0 

CO^^ONOOQOHC^CO^^CONGOOOH^CO^ 

hhhhhhhhhhC^C^OICKN 


The amount indicated includes side walls and ceilings. 











































NUMBER OF SQUARE YARDS AND FEET IN ROOMS WITH 9 FOOT CEILINGS. 


312 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING 



r^ciq 

Cl 

r-icDO 

Cl 

Tf TftO 
r-H r-H y—i 


co co o o 

i-H 

Tt< rH d 

Cl 

co co ^ ^ 

r-H i—H r-H r-H 


TP CO GO O CO 

o 

rji oo cd r>i i—i 

Cl 

CM CM CO CO ^ 

r-H r-H r-H r-H r-H 


h ci co ^ to q 

Ci 

d d oo ci d 

rH 

i-H Cl CM Cl CO CO 

r-H i—H r-H ^H i-H r-H 


o o o o o o q 

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go ci d d oo ci 

r-H 

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r-H i-H rH r-H rH rH rH 


^oooNqto^cc 


O N rH to i-H CO N 

rH 

OOOrHrHCMClCM 

i-H rH rH ^H rH H rH rH 


■^CtONiOCOrHOOCD 

co 

ciddcdt^i-Htoooci 

r-H 

CiCiCOOHHHCl 


rH rH rH rH rH iH rH 


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to 

tdoociddcdNr-I-doc 

r-H 

CCXCiCiOOOHHr-i 


rH rH rH H rH 




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t^cooo^o^Oi-Hcp<Nt^cq 
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d^NiHTfQOrHTtioOrHlOQO 

NNNOOO)OOC5aJOOOO 


Cl 


qcoqqcoqqcoqocoqq 

Tt5t^OT^t^d^i>OTt5t^OT^ 

CCNNNOOGOOOCCCCO 


TfOGOrH^LONO<N^OX'HCO 


N C CO N O CO C 
^O O O N N 


O CO O C iO C 
GO CO GO 00 Ci Ci Ci 


ocico^ppr^oDo^pcoTTpo 

ci d d cd d d ci d d ci d 06 r-i Tt<‘ 

lOiOiOOOOONNNOOOOXOC 


qqpoqqqqqoqqqqqp 

LOOCrH^NOCOdd^lOGOrHTfNd 

^TtiOUOiOCOCCNNNOOOOOOC 


CO 


00 


CO 

CO 


qoqr^qp^coci 
* d cd 


ci tjh 

Tf 


to 


CO Co Cl 

tO to o 


HOOONC^^CO 

tdoodcdddcitd 

cocot^t^t^t^oooo 


TtC^CNtO^HGOCTt'tMON 


CO 

CO 


CO 

CO 


CO fM 'f 

CO Tt< 


c 
^ to 


<M to 00 
to to to 


Tt< CO 
CO CO 


to CO 

d ci to 
co oo 


00 CO 

r- d 


co 


CCOCOOCOCOOCOCOOCOCOOCD 

cd 
co 


GO O 
Cl CO 


CO GO H 
CO CO 


o 


OClTf 

Tt- to to 


to 


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co CO 


co o q co o 
d od d cd d 

O C N N N 


tO 


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d 

co 

tO O ^ GO CO N 


COClNCOOO^OtO»HO<MNCO 


ci to 
ci ci ci 


CO to 00 
co co co 


o co 


to GO O 
^ ^ to 


co 

to 


CC GO 
to to 


i-H co co 
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GO H 
CO 


ci q r-n 
d ci d 

1-H Cl Cl Cl 


ci 


ocw 

co CO CO 


co CO 


Cl CO 1-J 

ci 

^ 


to 

d 


q tjj 

ci tjJ 

to to 


co 


OCOCOOCOCOOCOCOOCOCOOCOCOOCO 


CO to N O Cl 

1 -H 1 -H rH <M Ol 


Cl 


r^- Ci ^-h 

Cl (M CO 


T* CO 
CO CO 


oo t -< co 

COTfr^ 


to 


GO O 

^ to 


OOON 

d d i-H 

to to co 

q o co 

ci to 

to to to 


cm q 

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CO o 

d ci 
to co 


CO^iOcONGOCiOHdCO^tOcONOOCiOHlMcO^ 

rHi-Hr-Hr-Hr-Hr—irHr-H rH i—i Cl Cl Cl d Cl 


The amount indicated includes side walls and ceilings. 



































NUMBER OF SQUARE YARDS AND FEET IN ROOMS WITH 9.6 FOOT CEILINGS. 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING 


313 


<N 

04 

146.6 

151.2 

155.7 

r-H 

04 

OHIOO 

04 cd tH 

CO Th rtH *0 

t — 1 rH t-H r-H 

O 

04 

GO 04 tq CO 04 

CO CO b* t—5 CO 

04 CO CO rJH 

t-H r-H r-H t-H t-H 

a 

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CO 1C N O C^j ^ 
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C l M (N CO CO ^ 

t-H rH rH H rH rH 

00 

tH 

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04* cd o tjJ oo (N cd 

H h d Cl (M CO CO 

H rH rH rH rH rH rH 

H 

cocooocooooooooq 

CONr-iddcONtH 

O* H rH H 04 04 CO 

H rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

o 

rH 

O 00 N O ^ ^ CO Cl H 

cda>cdr^^*da>ccr^ 

OOOOHHHdCl 

rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

rH 

COHOqcDTtjCjONqcO 

oooi^doicot^^-H^oooi 

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rH rH rH rH tH rH 

Th 

rH 

oOLOOioqLoooqiocQoqio 

oHo6'-<‘ScicNcDOc6i> 

OOOOOOOCBOJOOhhh 

rH tH rH tH rH 

CO 

t-H 

coo4i>*cooq^o^OtHcqo4i> 

co o ^ h td oo oi lo a> oi 

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rH tH rH rH 

04 

t-H 

lOHiOO^OOCONClCOHqq 

oocd^ocd^o^t^’-^oo 

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H rH rH 

r-H 

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00 04 *0 00 04 *0 GO 04 *q 00 04 »q CO 04 
a^cdcdcdcdcdcdcdcdocdcoaico 

lOCOCOONNNOOOOOOOOOO 

f "H 

o 

r-H 

co^ONOCiqqoqHcqqNqcj^ 

cdcoocdcdoio4>oaio4ido6o4ido6 

lO^O^OOCOCONNNCOOOCOGiO^O^ 

o 

OhCICO^^ONOOOhOICO^^O 

NdcoddoiicootHioc^tHrft^oco 

TjHiO^^^OOOONNb-OOGOCOGJOi 

CO 

cooo<X)ooooQOoqoqoqGOoqa)tx)oqoqcx3oq 
ocooaio-iioooHHt^ococooicliooo 
Tfrt^rtiTriiOLOLOCOCOCDt^ t> l> t^GO 00 00 _ 


oooNO^^cocjHqooNdq^jcocjH 

dNdcoddcidooHcoddciioooH^ 

COCO^^^T^iOiOLOCOCOOONNNOOGO 

o 

cotHooo^ciONqcoHooqqciqNqco 

oo4^r^ocdcdo6tHr^t^cdo4uocd^cdcpp 

o^cococo^Tti^T^LOio^o^oococot^t^r^r^ 

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oo^04(X)uoo4QOuoo4co*qo4oo*qo4co*qo4oq*q 

cdcda^rHT^r^a>o4Ld^ocdidcotHcocoair-H^ 

O40404C0C0'C0CO^^^ l O lj ^ lJ ^ L^ ^ <: £ )C £ )C ^ c £ )^ ' >,, ^ 


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The amount indicated includes side walls and ceilings. 














































NUMBER OF SQUARE YARDS AND FEET IN ROOMS WITH 10 FOOT CEILINGS. 


314 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING 




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The amount indicated includes side walls and ceilings. 






















































NUMBER OF SQUARE 1 ARDS AND FEET IN ROOMS WITH 10.6 FOOT CEILINGS. 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING 


315 


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The amount indicated includes side walls and ceilings. 





























































NUMBER OF SQUARE YARDS AND FEET IN ROOMS WITH 11 FOOT CEILINGS. 


316 


TABLES FOR ESTIMATING. 


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The amount indicated'includes side walls and ceilings. 







































NUMBER OF SQUARE YARDS AND FEET IN ROOMS WIH 12 FOOT CEILINGS. 



TABLES FOR ESTIMATING. 

22 

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161.0 

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156.0 

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The amount indicated includes side walls and ceilings. 












































PART VII. 


RULES FOR SUPERINTENDING CONCRETE 
CONSTRUCTION, TABLES OF STRENGTH, 
WEIGHT, ETC., MISCELLANEOUS TABLES, 
VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC., MEN¬ 
SURATION TABLES, A FEW PROBLEMS 
FOR THE NOON HOUR. 


Rules for Superintending Concrete Construction.— 

Forms. —As the forms are being built, see that they are built 
strong enough and so braced and tied together that they will 
hold the mass of wet concrete to be deposited in them, and 
withstand the pressure caused by puddling and tamping, and 
not bulge or give way with the pressure. 

For forms use pine, spruce, or fir lumber. Some other woods, 
especially California redwood and chestnut, will stain the face 
of the concrete. • 

The forms should usually be left in place for about 10 days, 
or until the concrete is hard, or in the case of walls with a 
pressure on them, or columns, beams, etc., the forms should 
not be removed under 3 or 4 weeks, and in cold weather should 
be left in place two months or more. 

When the conditions will allow and it is intended to remove 
the forms while the concrete is green, or before it is about 
a week old, the forms should be bolted and fastened together, 
so they can be taken down without jarring the concrete and 
cracking or chipping it. 

When a smooth surface is desired on the concrete use 
tongued and grooved boards for forms. To prevent bulging 
the boards should be not less than 11 inches in thickness. 

318 



SUPERINTENDING CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 319 


The forms should be made nearly water-tight, and all knot 
holes and cracks should be covered with a piece of tin to pre¬ 
vent the concrete from running out. 

Before depositing any concrete, go over the forms, and 
check them up as to size, etc., and see that all chases, recesses, 
openings for pipes, bearing recesses, etc., have been built 
in the forms, so as to give the desired space or pocket in the 
concrete. 

See that the forms or center for arches are set on wedges, 
which can be driven out and the center lowered when desired 
to remove it. 

All stay bolts in the forms, which will be covered with the 
concrete should be well greased before the concrete is depos¬ 
ited, so the bolts can be withdrawn easily when the forms are 
taken down. 

The forms for beams should be made with a little camber, 
so that the weight of the concrete will not cause the forms to 
sag below a straight line. 

As the concrete is being put in place watch the forms for 
breaking or bulging. 

On work where it is intended to remove the forms as soon as 
possible in order to finish the face of the concrete, the forms 
should be given a coat of linseed-oil or crude oil before the 
concrete is put in place. Boiled linseed-oil is the best, as it 
gives a glazed or varnished surface to the forms. 

Do not use very dry lumber for forms; it will swell and warp. 
Wet or green lumber makes the best forms. 

Do not allow the use of small wire for tying together 
forms where there will be much pressure of the wet con¬ 
crete; the wire will cut into the wood and allow the forms 
to spread. Use bolts where there will be much strain on the 
forms. 

Materials. —See that the materials used are exactly what 
are called for in the specifications, and that each material will 
meet the specification requirements. 

See that the aggregate is clean and of the kind and size 
specified. If it contains much stone dust, it indicates a rotten 
stone and should not be used unless tested. 

The stone should be of about one size or be evenly graded 
from fine to coarse. Too much fine stone in the aggregate is 
detrimental to the strength of the concrete. 

All of the very fine materials should be screened out. 


320 SUPERINTENDING CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 


Do not use gravel in which much slime and vegetable matter 
is present. 

Do not use larger than -} inch aggregate for reinforced-con- 
crete work. Larger than this will not pack readily among the 
reinforcing bars. 

Examine the sand as to grit, size, and for earthy or vege¬ 
table matter. If containing over 10 per cent of clay it should 
not be used. 

If ocean sand is used in concrete where an efflorescence will 
disfigure it, the sand should be thoroughly washed to take 
out the salt. 

Do not use “quicksand ’’ (sand that is worn round) for making 
concrete. 

The coarser the stone used the coarser the sand should 
be, or for dense work, the sand can be graded from fine to 
coarse. 

When the aggregate used is of a small size, the sand should 
be fine to make dense work. 

The cement, if not of a well known and tested brand, should 
be tested before being used on any important piece of con¬ 
crete work. 

See that the cement before being used is kept protected 
from the weather and moisture. 

Do not use salt water for mixing concrete if it is desired 
to show no efflorescence. 

Do not use puzzolan cement for work above ground and 
exposed to the dry air or sun. 

Measuring the Materials. —A quick and exact method of 
measuring the dry materials for making concrete is with 
bottomless boxes, as described on page 50. 

Barrels with the heads knocked out can also be used for 
measuring the dry materials, but require a little more labor 
to shovel the materials into them. 

For ordinary work wheelbarrows will do for measuring, 
provided the workmen can be trusted or some one is watching 
them all the time; but for exact quantities, the boxes de¬ 
scribed are the best. When wheelbarrows are used for 
measuring, first find out the number of bags of cement a 
barrow will contain, so as to ascertain the number of bar- 
rows of sand and aggregate to use to a given number of bags 
of cement. 

Several makes of mixers measure the dry materials auto- 


SUPERINTENDING CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 321 


matically, but they should be checked up every day to see 
that they are operating correctly. 

Water can be measured by the bucket, or a good automatic 
apparatus for measuring the water is described on page 152. 

Mixing. —If the mixing is done by hand it should be on a 
watertight platform with a curb or rim around it to prevent 
the water running off and carrying away the cement. 

See that the mass is mixed dry until it is of a uniform color, 
before adding the water. 

After the water is added, the mixing should be continued 
until the mass is of the same consistency throughout, and 
every piece of the aggregate has a coating of the cement mortar. 

After ascertaining the amount of water required to the batch, 
have the water added by measurement so that each batch will 
be of the same consistency. The author has used the auto¬ 
matic feed mixers, but does not favor them, as the cement 
feed often becomes clogged and will not measure correctly, 
and there is no way to measure the water, as in a batch mixer. 

Of the various mixers in use a batch mixer is the best, as 
the materials can be measured exactly for each batch of con¬ 
crete, and each batch can be mixed as long as desired. 

After having found the number of revolutions required to 
produce a mix as desired, have each and every batch then given 
that number of revolutions in the mixer. 

If the mixing is done in a continuous or gravity mixer, have 
the dry materials measured in a three-layer pile, first the 
aggregate, next the sand, and then the cement, by using three 
bottomless boxes, as described on page 50. Then shovel 
in the dry mixture, shoveling from the bottom of the layer 
of aggregate. In this way the dry materials will mix as the 
cement and sand runs down the face of the pile as it is shoveled 
in. 

If an automatic self-measuring mixer is used, check its 
measurement at intervals to see the feed has not been changed. 

Do not allow the dry materials to be mixed and stand any 
length of time before being wet and used. The sand generally 
contains enough moisture to cause the cement to set. 

The ooncrete to be deposited around reinforcing rods should 
be a mushy mixture that can be puddled into place. 

Metal Reinforcing. —See that all rods used for reinforce¬ 
ment are free from rust scales which will prevent the concrete 
from obtaining a hold on the rod. A thin coating of rust 


322 SUPERINTENDING CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 


that has not commenced to scale will not be a detriment, 
unless the reinforcement is to be used in cinder concrete. For 
use in cinder concrete, the reinforcement should be galvanized 
or painted to protect it from the action of the acids in the 
cinders. 

Any rods having rust heavy enough to scale should not 
be used unless they are cleaned by brushing with wire brushes, 
or by being dipped in an acid bath to remove the rust. 

A pickling bath, which will remove the rust, is made of 
1 part sulphuric acid to 5 parts of water. After passing through 
this bath the rods should be washed in clean water to remove 
all acid. 

Before depositing the concrete see that all reinforcing rods 
are in their proper places and anchored and tied together, 
as called for by the specifications. Also check up all rods 
to see that they are of the same size and in the position indicated 
on the drawings. 

All rods of beams, etc., should have the ends turned to form 
an anchor in the concrete, and the rods should be spaced so 
there will be at least 1^ inches of concrete between the rod 
and the form, and between the different parallel rods there 
should be about 4 inches of concrete. 

When bending reinforcing rods make the bends slowly,. 
as by making a quick or sudden bend the cold bar is more 
liable to break or crack. 

Examine all bends and angles for cracks before placing the 
rod in position. 

When expanded metal or woven wire is used as a reinforce¬ 
ment, see that it is kept up from the soffit of the slab about 
f inch. If the workmen are not watched they will usually 
get this reinforcing down so it will be exposed on the bottom 
of the slab. 

Be careful to protect all reinforcing rods which project out 
of newly deposited concrete, so they will not be struck or 
jarred, thus breaking the adhesion between the rod and the 
concrete. 

When using any expanded metal or woven wire reinforcing 
in floor slabs do not permit of the metal being cut and lapped 
between the beams, but have all splices made on top of a beam, 
and have the metal sheets lap each other one mesh and wired 
together. 

When depositing concrete around lattice or open columns 


SUPERINTENDING CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 323 


or girders fill the interior solid with concrete or cement mortar 
to prevent rusting. 

Depositing the Concrete. —Before depositing any con¬ 
crete check up the forms as to size, etc., as previously ex¬ 
plained. Then see that all sawdust, shavings, chips, etc., 
are removed and the forms free from all dirt. 

It is a good idea to wet the forms thoroughly before the 
concrete is put in them. 

As the concrete is deposited watch as it is puddled or rammed 
into place to see that it is of the right consistency, and is readily 
forced into place, filling all spaces solid. 

When depositing concrete in beams and such places pound 
the sides of the forms with a heavy hammer, as this jar will 
settle the concrete and help to break and force out air bubbles. 

Do not dump concrete over 5 feet, it causes the aggregate 
to separate from the mortar, and the jar of the falling con¬ 
crete is liable to strain the forms or crack the concrete already 
in place and set. 

When depositing with a bucket lower the bucket as close 
as possible to the concrete before dumping, and be careful 
not to let the bucket swing and strike or jar the forms or the 
finished concrete. 

Deposit the concrete in horizontal layers of about 8 inches 
and ram or puddle each layer thoroughly. 

Put on each succeeding layer before the one below has set 
so the concrete will be one mass with no joints between the 
layers as deposited. 

When depositing concrete in trenches containing water, 
bail out as much of the water as possible, then deposit the 
concrete from one end of the trench, driving what water is 
left to the other end. When water is gathered in this way, 
take it up by depositing some dry concrete. 

When concrete is be deposited under water, use bags or 
pipe, as explained on page 200. 

Have rammers of different sizes on the work, so as to be 
able to ram the concrete in all places. 

Prepare the top of the concrete finished at the close of the 
day to bond with the concrete that will be deposited on it 
the next day or after the concrete in place is set. A good 
method is to scatter some of the stone aggregate over the wet 
concrete after it is rammed and lightly tamp them in the soft 
concrete, so that about half of each piece of aggregate is buried 


324 SUPERINTENDING CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 


in the concrete and the other half is sticking up to be imbedded 
in the concrete to be deposited when work is resumed. Another 
good method is to take a rammer about 4X4 inches and go 
over the soft concrete, forcing the rammer into it about 2 
inches deep once to every foot of surface, thus making a number 
of holes or indentations in the soft concrete. The next layer 
of concrete will fill these indentations and dowel the two 
layers of concrete together. If the concrete used is too soft 
to hold the indentations made, a number of wood blocks can 
be forced into the concrete and left in place until the next morn¬ 
ing, when they can be taken out before depositing any 
concrete. 

When depositing concrete around reinforcing rods see that 
the rods are not knocked out of position and that the concrete 
is packed solid around the rod. 

Do not allow a lot of the aggregate free from mortar to gather 
around the rod, but see that the mortar comes in contact with 
the rods over their entire surface. 

Do not allow any concrete to stand after being mixed, but 
have it put in place immediately. Some cements attain their 
initial set in about half an hour after being wet. 

When putting concrete fire-proofing around beams take 
pains to have the concrete forced under the beam, so the space 
beneath will be filled solid. 

See that the workmen when leveling off the concrete as it 
is deposited do not scrape it with the point of the shovel, thus 
scraping a lot of the aggregate out of the mortar and deposit¬ 
ing it with no mortar in one place. Have the work leveled 
by spading and shoveling the concrete from the high into 
the low places, taking mortar and aggregate at each shovel¬ 
ful. 

Do not deposit any fresh concrete on concrete that has been 
in place and set until the surface of the concrete in place has 
been washed clean. Then to make a better bond or adhesion, 
give it a coat of cement grout just before depositing the new 
lot of concrete. 

See that all bolts, anchors, nailing-blocks, etc., which may 
be required in the finished work are put in place and built 
in as the concrete is deposited. Wood blocks when bedded 
in concrete should be dipped in hot asphalt to prevent rot. 

When putting concrete filling on top of floor slabs or around 
floor sleepers, see that all dust and dirt is brushed off the con- 


SUPERINTENDING CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 325 


Crete in place and that it is drenched thoroughly before de¬ 
positing the filling. 

Where required, see that bolts or anchors are built in as 
the work progresses, for hanging shafting, machinery, etc. 

When depositing concrete in girders, floors, etc., commence 
at the farthest point from the elevator or hoist and work toward 
the hoist. 

In this way it will not be necessary to wheel loaded barrows 
or to have the workmen walk over the freshly deposited con¬ 
crete before it is set hard. 

When depositing concrete in column forms see that there 
are no washers or other obstructions in the way of the falling 
concrete, which would interfere with packing the concrete. 
Washers are often used on the vertical rods to keep them 
away from the forms, but these washers prevent the concrete 
from falling and often on the removal of the forms there is 
found a cavity under the washer, where the concrete did not 
fill. 

General Notes. —A good tool to use for puddling con¬ 
crete is a spading fork, which is usually made the shape of a 
spade but with four or more prongs. 

Have all finished concrete wet thoroughly twice dail y for 
a week or more after being put in place. 

When casting large blocks of concrete which are to be set 
as blocks of stone, see that lewis holes are cast in the stone or 
blocks, so they can be lifted with the derrick. These holes 
should be on the top ‘‘bed.'’ 

Do not try to do concrete work when the thermometer is 
below the freezing-point, unless provision is made to keep the 
concrete from freezing. 

After a concrete gang has been “broke in,” keep them at 
the same work daily. Better and more work is obtained than 
by changing men frequently. 

On important work there should be an inspector at the 
miser all the time. Workmen may get careless and make a 
weak batch of concrete if no one is watching, and this one batch 
of weak concrete may endanger the whole structure in which 
it is used. On a piece of work under the supervision of the 
author a batch of concrete was made and being deposited 
when he noticed it was “off color.” 

On examination it was found the men at the mixer had 
“forgot” to put in the cement. 



326 SUPERINTENDING CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 


An accident could be the only result if a batch of such con¬ 
crete would find its way into a beam or column. 

When supervising concrete work take no person’s word 
for anything, but see for yourself, and then be sure you are 
not being deceived. 

In long continuous walls see that expansion joints are pro¬ 
vided every 50 or 60 feet. 

Do not permit walking or working on floor slabs or beams 
while the concrete is hardening, as the vibration will loosen 
the adhesion of the reinforcement and the concrete. If possible, 
keep newly laid concrete free from traffic of any kind for two 
or three days. 

When removing forms take everything apart as carefully 
as possible and do not drop timbers, etc., on the floor below, 
which may cause a crack in the floor slabs or beams. 

When constructing sidewalks see that all roots of trees are 
removed before depositing the concrete, as they will cause 
cracks by upheaval. 

When laying sidewalks do not allow the joints to become 
filled with cement after being cut through, thus defeating the 
purpose for which they were cut. 

Keep newly laid sidwalks covered or so protected that dogs 
cannot walk over and disfigure them before the cement is 
hardened; if necessary keep a man in charge to keep animals 
and persons from walking over the newly laid walk. 

To clean dirt and sawdust out of forms use compressed air 
or steam when possible, steam being preferable as it blows out 
the dirt and wets the forms at the same time. 

When placing concrete do not dump directly into place but 
back a little on that already in place, then by puddling and 
shoving cause the newly dumped concrete to run or flow down 
into the beams or floor slabs. 

Do not try to use oil paint on wet concrete, wait until it is 
dry before painting. 







STRENGTH. ETC. ; OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 327 


STRENGTH AND WEIGHT OF VARIOUS GRANITES. 


State. 

Location. 

Strength 
i perSq. 
i Inch. 

Weight 
per Sq. 
Foot. 

Arkansas . 

Pulaski Co. 'gray zrz.-zj.-e- . 

14 000 



Fturr:i Moor.tain 'syenite' 

30 740 

i67 

California.. 

Rocklin.. 

30.740 

167 

Calon do. . - ..... 

Gmanaca . 

12 076 

165 

mm 

P' itte Canyon 'red .... 

14 58-5 

163 

Gtnreetietr;-. 

Mkk&etaa.. 

21.460 


te * 

Waterford.. 

23 5 If) 


c ft 

Meriden, rrao rook). ... 

34 920 


•• 

Kirkland rocks.. 

-5 3 (' 

166 

• ft 

Lord A Island.. 

24 00* j 

•• 

Mvstie Pd—PT. 

22 250 

154 

mm 

Asr* Ha^e - . 

9.7-50 

mm 

M IL-town Point. 

16.187 

169 

• c 

Milford.. 

22.600 j 


• • 

N’esr Loof-m. .. 

12.500 1 

166 

C-’T r£ i. 

T hhnnia 

25-630 

Maine. . . 

ilnrdrane Isle.. 

19.-538 

167 

ftft 

Jtnesboro [red). ............. 

24.507 

«• 

W«lf)nlirtm 'wtiira). __ ... 

23,111 


mm 

V;rtr -Ja— red. 

22367 


mm 

Drr Tdanrf. , , 

15 0GO 

ifi6 

mm 

Fox Island bine). 

15 000 

164 

mm 

S’-^'kevA f):a.Tv. 


170 

mm 

Vinalnaven. ^*ay}... ............ 

17 000 

itasEa-rhaseCj*. ... 

! Cane Ann.. 

20.296 

164 

mm 

Milford pink).... . . ........._ 

30 888 


mm 

Milford AarcroM Bros.). ....._ 

20 SS3 


mm 

Quincy (dark)_......... 

17.7-50 

166 

mm 

Quine v ... 

14.750 

166 

mm 

Fail Ri—er zray. 

15.937 


'Vf **4 SSTfi- . . 

Hurra Island. 

15 125 

ibi 

\ r twi t— *r 

d-v—rd ,: s.... 

24 T 'l 


V 1 " 

East St. Cload.... 

2S (TO 

inS 

mm 

Dolttfeh. (dark). 

17.631 

175 

mm 

Duluth viiadit. 

19 000 


Ac* Esintscire 

Trov. . 

17.950 

its 

mm 

Keer^- (blue array).. 

12JOOO 

166 

\ e ▼ V :>rk. ... 

G'sfien. . . . 

23.'<‘-r 


Sm 

Staten Idand bltieA ............. 

22 550 

irs 

mm 

TmjCo we.. . 

1* 250 

162 

Nst Jersev . 

Seocen Plains trao rock). .. .. 

17.950 


ft fc 

Passaic Co. t'zrav). 

24.040 

m 

«« 

Jer^etr Gty. . . 

2) 750 

i*9 

Rhode Idaad . .. 

Westerly sray). 

17.500 

165 

Stirth far: ins. 

Carlisle.. 

-V 


T_ _ 

Barnet Ca . ... 

11 891 

i7Q 

\ _ _ 

R*—=> f <• ‘A1l . __..._ 

19 975 


fck 

74 •.—P i.rnt). __ ____ 

17356 




■ 25,100 



... 

Richmond. .. . .. 





| 25,520 











































































































328 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


STRENGTH AND WEIGHT OF SANDSTONES. 


State. 

Location. 

Color. 

Strength 
per Sq. 
Inch. 

Weight 
per Sq. 
Foot. 


Flagstaff. 

Chocolate. 

5,857 

142 


Colusa. 


8,880 



St Wains . 

Red. 

11.500 

149 


Fort, Collins . . 

Gray. 

11,707 

140 

A A 

Manitou. 

Red.. 

11,000 

140 

Connecticut. .. . 

A A 

Portland . 


10,871 

148 

Mir) Hint own. 

Brown. 

6,950 


A A 

Cromwell. 


16,890 

i56 


Riverside. 

Gray. 

6,000 




Blue. 

6,090 



La Grande. 


6.805 



Valiev Falls. 


7,500 

152 


Langford 


15.160 


Massachusetts. . 

East Longmeadow. . . 

Red. 

11,595 

i54 

Missouri. .. 

W arrensburg. 

Blue gray. 

9.687 

149 

^linnpsofa. 

TCasota. . 

Pink. . . .. 

10,700 

164 

A « 

Kettle River. 

Pinkish buff. .. 

17.000 

139 

A A 

Frontenae. 

Buff. 

6.250 

145 


Redrork. 


6,019 


A A 

Portage Entry (Lake 





Superior). 

Red. 

6,776 

126 

A A 

Marquette . . . 


7,450 

158 

Vnrk 

Potsdam . 

Red . 

18,401 

162 

A A A A 

Medina . 

Pink . 

17,250 

150 

A A A A 

Oxford . 

Blue. 

12.677 


« A A A 

Warsaw. 

Blue. 

19,968 

if>7 

A A A A 

Albion. 

Brown . 

13.500 

157 

A A A A 

T ittle Falls . 

Brown . 

9.850 


A A A A 

H averstra w . 

Red . 

4,350 

i33 


Relleville . 

Gray . 

11,700 

147 

A A A A 

A A 

Brown . 

13,310 

148 

North Carolina 

Carthage . 


12,750 


Ohio. . 

Seneca . 

Redchsh brown 

5,000 

i34 

A A 

Lancaster . 


5,950 


A A 

Amherst . 

Buff . 

9,450 

1.33 

A A 

Berea . 

Dark drab. . . . 

9.510 

134 

A A 

Cleveland . 

Olive-green.. . . 

6,800 

140 

A A 

Vermillion . 

Drab . 

S.850 

135 

A A 

Massilon. . 

Yellow-drab. .. 

8,750 


Pennsvlvania. . 

1 A 

Hnmmelstown . 

Brown . 

13.097 


Laurel Run . 


22.250 

i66 

A A 

White Haven . 

• 

29,250 


South Dakota . 

Hot Springs . 


6,914 


Rapid City . 

Gray . 

11,452 


A A A A 


Red". . 

6,116 


TYflQkiT'P't on.. 

Chuckanut . 


10.276 


\Vi<5r»nnsi n . 

Fon du Lao . 

Purple . 

6,237 

1.38 

Wvfiminr. 

Rawlins . 


10,883 



1 




RATIO OF ABSORPTION OF 'STONES. 


Kind of 
Material. 

Maxi¬ 

mum. 

Mini¬ 

mum. 

Aver¬ 

age. 

Kind of 
Material. 

Maxi¬ 

mum. 

Mini¬ 

mum. 

Aver¬ 

age. 

Granites. 

Mso 

MoO 

Mo 

o' O O 
0 

MoO 

Goo 

M$8 

Sandstones. .. 
Bricks. 

Mo 

H 

Vi 

M40 

VoO 

Mo 

M >4 

Mo 

H 

Marbles. 

Limestones. . . 

Mortars. 















































































































































STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 329 


Strength and Weight of Various Limestones, 


State. 

Location. 

Strength per 
Sq. Inch. 

Weight per 

Cu. Foot. 

Ark. . 

Johnston. 

15,500 


111. .. . 

Kankakee. 

13,544 

165 


Joliet (white) . . 

14,775 

160 

4 t 

Quincy. 

9.687 

160 

< * 

Grafton. 

17,000 


Ind. .. 

Bedford. 

6,000 

154 

“ 

Bloomington. . . 

4,100 


c t 

Salem. 

9,000 

156 

i 4 

Stinsville. 

5,600 


Iowa. . 

La Grande. 

10,825 


“ 

Stone City. 

11,250 

136 

Kan. 

Marion. 

12,364 

168 

Ky. . . 

Warren Co. 

6,795 



Bardst’n (da’k). 

16,250 

168 

Minn.. 

Winona. 

16,250 

160 

44 

Stillwater. 

15,000 

172 

< « 

Redwing. 

23,000 

162 


State. 

Location. 

Strength per 

Sq. Inch. 

Weight per 

Cu. Foot. 

Mich. 

Lime Island.... 

18,000 


Mo. .. 

Carthage (white) 

14,950 

185 

4 4 

Cooper Co. (dark 




drab). 

6 650 

141 

N. Y. 

Glens Falls. 

11,475 

168 

4 4 

Lake Champlain 

25,000 

171 

4 i 

North River. .. . 

11,475 

169 

t » 

Canajoharie. . . . 

20 700 

168 

4 C 

Erie Co. (blue). . 

12,250 

165 

4 4 

Kingston. 

13,900 

168 

4 4 

Garrison. 

18,500 

165 

Ohio. 

Marbleh’d (w’e). 

12,600 

150 

Wis... 

Sturgeon Bay 




(blue). 

21,500 

174 

C 4 

Waukesha. 

8,880 


Pa... . 

Avondale (gray) 

18,000 


• 4 

“ (light) 

12,112 


« 4 

Conshohocken. ' 

15,000 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, WEIGHT, AND CRUSHING STRENGTH 
OF VARIOUS MARBLES. 


State. 

Location. 

Car¬ 

bonate 

of 

Lime. 

Iron. 

Car¬ 

bonate 

of 

Mag¬ 

nesia. 

Insol¬ 

uble. 

W’ght 

per 

Square 

Foot. 

Crush¬ 

ing 

Str’ng’h 

per 

Square 

Inch. 

Cal. . 

Inyo. . .. 

78.36 

.017 

21.79 

2.6 


29,000 


Colton. 

92.9 


4.5 

2.6 


9,350 

< 4 

Beulah. 

98 00 

.04 

.05 

.06 


Ga . . . 

Cherokee. 

98.96 


.13 

.61 

171 

10,970 

4 * 

Creole. 

98. 


.26 

.50 

172 

12,078 

4 4 

Etowah. 

97.32 

.26 

1.60 

.62 

169 

10,642 

Ill... . 

Mill Creek. 





172 

9,687 

Md. . . 

Cockysville. 





178 

23,500 

Mass. . 

Lee. . . . 

69 64 


27.98 

1.00 


18,047 

4 4 

Westfield. 

79.68 


19.68 

.20 


21,820 

4 • 

Great Barrington 

98 34 

. 14 

50 

38 


10,910 

4 4 

Hastings. .. 

52 82 


45.78 



18,941 

N. Y. 

South Dover. 

77.29 

‘ 

20.25 

.90 


18,836 

4 4 

East Chester. 





179 

13,500 

« 4 

Pleasant ville. 

54.12 


45.04 

.10 


12,692 

* 4 

Sinff Sin<r. . 

53 24 


45.89 




Pa. .. . 

Annville. 

95.10 

.23 

3.96 

1.07 


12,210 

4 4 

Montgomery (blue). . 

98.15 

.54 

.50 

.77 

180 

18,000 

Tenn. 

East. Tennessee. . . 

98 78 

.26 

.67 

.08 


15,750 

Vt. . 

Prnetnr. 

98 37 

.03 

.77 

.63 


4 4 

Rutland (white). . . . 

97.73 

.59 


1.68 

166 

10,746 

4 4 

Rutland (green) 

85.45 

14.55 





4 4 

Dorset. 





165 

7,612 

Va.. . 

Montgomery. 






8,950 

Wis. .. 

North Bay. 





175 

20,025 















































































































330 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


CRUSHING STRENGTH OF STONES, ETC. 

Crushing Strength in 
Pounds per Sq. Inch. 


Material. From To 

Lee, Mass., marble. 20,504 22,000 

Potomac red sandstone. 16,625 22,102 

Coshohocken, Pa., limestone. 14,090 16,340 

Hnmmelstown, Pa., sandstone. 12,810 13,610 

Montgomery Co., Pa., blue marble. 9,590 13,700 

Philadelphia pressed bricks. 7,210 9,050 

Indiana limestone... 7,190 10,620 

Philadelphia hard bricks. 5,540 20,83o 

Ohio sandstone. 3,940 16,280 

Brick masonry in cement mortar. 1,600 2,685 

Brick masonry in lime mortar. 799 1,914 


SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT, AND CRUSHING STRENGTH 
OF BRICK. 


Name. 

Specific 

Gravity. 

Weight per 
Cubic Foot 
in Pounds. 

Crushing 
Strength per 
Square Inch 
in Pounds. 

Rpist. prpsfifid. 

2.4 

150 

5,000 to 14,973 
5,000 to 8,000 
450 to 600 

Common hard. 

1.6 to 2.0 

125 

Soft. 

1.4 

100 



The New York Building Code gives the working strength 
of brickwork as follows: 

Pounds per 
Sq. Inch. 

Brickwork in Portland-cement mortar: cement, 1; sand, 3. . 208 


Brickwork in lime and cement mortar: cement, 1; lime, 1; 

sand, 6... 160 

Brickwork in lime mortar: lime, 1; sand, 4. Ill 

' 

WEIGHT OF BRICKWORK. 

Placing the weight of brickwork at 112 lbs. per cubic foot, 
the weights per superficial foot for different walls are as follows: 

For 9-inch wall. 84 lbs. 

For 13-inch wall. . . .. ..- . 121 “ 

For 18-inch wall..•. 168 “ 

For 22-inch wall. 205 “ 

For 26-inch wail. . . . .. 243 “ 





























CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS SANDSTONES. 


STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 331 


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332 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS LIMESTONES. 


State. 

Location. 

Quarry. 

Carbonate of 

Calcium. 

1 Carbonate of 

Magnesia. 

Ox. Iron & 

Alumina. 

# 

i 

3 

m 

Oxide of 

Calcium. 

Ill. . . . 

Quincy. 

F. W. Menke Stone Co. . 

92.77 

6.75 

.27 

15.90 


• * 

Lemont. 

... . 

45.80 

.... 

9.30 

15.90 

.... 

« < 








Inch 7'. 

Rod ford 

Bedford Quar. Co. 

98.20 

.39 

.39 

.63 



“ “ (blue) 

97.26 

.37 

.49 

1.69 


1 i 

Spnneer. 


96.80 

.11 

.91 

.70 


t i 

Clear Creek... . 

Acme Stone Co. 

97.37 

.78 

.13 

.84 

.10 

• i 

Peru. 

J. N. Hurtz . 

52.90 

38.94 

1.25 

4.05 


Iowa. . 

Monmouth. . . . 

L. B. Stewart Co. 

57.54 

41.51 

.... 

.42 



Marion 

I. Kuhn & Co. 

91.50 

1.62 

1.24 

5.51 


Ky. . . 

Warren Co. . . . 

Caden Stone Co . 

54.80 


.22 

.76 

. ... 

___ 


Bowling Green 


95.31 

1.12 

.39 

1.42 



T ran ton 

Sibly Quarry Co . 

98.53 

.53 

.06 

.60 


Minn.. 

i i 

Ka.snta. 


49.16 

37.53 

1.09 

13.06 


Stillwater. . . . 


50.22 

37.39 

.78 

8.74 


i t 

Frontenac . 


54.78 

42.53 

.67 

2.73 


Mo 

Cart, h age . 

Myers Stone Co . 

98.57 

.65 

.21 

.69 


N. Y. 

Cobbleskill .... 

Cobbleskill Quarry Co. . 

41.90 

1.65 

.97 

4.31 

51.05 

4 4 

Amsterdam. . . 


42.64 

, . 

1.08' 

3.82 

52.46 

Ohio. . 

Cold Springs. . . 

Casparis Stone Co . 

54.05 

44.94 

.23 

.49 

.... 

‘ ‘ 

Tiffin . 



40.36 

.10 

1.61 

57.44 

« ( 

Dayton . 


92.40 

1.10 

.58 

1.70 


i t 

Springfield. . . 


54.70 

44.93 

.20 

.10 


Pa. 

Youngstown. . . 

Carbon Limestone Co. . 

96.43 

.40 

1.60 

1.50 

• • • • 

4 4 

Norristown. .. . 

Wm. Rambo. 

53.49 

45.76 

.... 

.70 


R. I . . 

Lime Rock. .. . 

Herbert Harris . 

88.23 

8.79 

.32 

2.74 

. . 

W. Va 

Marlow. 

G. C. Ditto. 


.98 

.26 

.18 

98.44 

Wis. .. j 

Hamilton. 

Hamilton Stone Co. 

54.25 

44.48 

.10 

.67 

. ... 


PRODUCTION AND USE OF MARBLE QUARRIED IN THE U. S. 

DURING 1901. 


State. 

Rough 

Build¬ 

ing. 

Orna- 

m’tal. 

Ceme¬ 

tery. 

Inte¬ 

rior. 

Other. 

Total. 

Alaska . 

$4,500 

300 

200 

3,280 

268,761 

8,100 

63,556 






$4,500 

300 

300 

6.642 

936,549 

68,100 

126,545 

2,100 

1,500 

10,600 

379,159 

500 

157,547 

494,637 

320 

2,753,583 

22,816 

Arizona. 

1 





Arkansas. 


$100 

1,812 

16,500 




Galifornia 

$1,550 

241,683 

45,000 

26,220 




Georgia. 

$207,305 

15,000 

9,560 

2,100 

1,500 

3,100 

204,289 

500 

25,060 

14,000 

$166,305 

$36,000 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts.. , 
Missouri. 

3,700 

15,051 

8,459 

Montana. 






New Mexico. . . . 
New York. 

4,200 

2,367 

3,000 

132,943 

300 

4,900 



28,000 

6,660 

Oregon. 

Pennsylvania. . . 
Tennessee. 

18,078 

162,513 

320 

53,892 

1,600 

111,009 

13,000 


400 

305,124 

2,940 


Utah. 



Vermont. 

659,200 

2,358 

94,450 

4,814 

1,452,434 

14,044 

493,607 


Washington. . . . 




Totals.. . 

591,667 

1,236,023 

126,576 

1,948,892 

1,008,482 

54,059 

4,965,699 



































































































CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF GRANITES FROM VARIOUS QUARRIES. 


STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 333 


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£&> 


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rnO >r4^ ,-g cffi g £. £ ~ c 

w ^CC-M fl’S © P- Sd^nlCMBoO 

mm 


aSgo““ffl^ u cg©- _. ch , 

1 8 i Ss-S oW- 


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© . 


©°>, 3 .S a 
'■a ^ w 9 c c** 

&§d§‘B : 

© © © ®.y 

tto*» £ 



















































































334 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 

LOCATION OF QUARRY AND BUILDING IN WHICH VARIOUS 
GRANITES HAVE BEEN USED. 


Location of Quarry. 


Concord, N. H. 


Hallowell, Maine. 
Quincy, Mass. . 


.. > 


Dedham, Mass.. 

Vinalhaven, Mass. .. . 
Red Beach, Maine. . . 
Jonesboro, Maine. . . 
Dix Island, Maine. . . 

Cape Ann, Mass. 

Milford, Mass. 

North Conway, N. H. 
Lynn, Conn. 


Grindstone, N. Y. 


Westerly, R. I; . 
Richmond, Va. . 

Georgia. 

Graniteville, Mo. 


Building Used in. 


St. Cloud, Minn. 

Gunnison, Colo. 

Little Cottonwood Canyon 


National Library, Washington,D.C 

N. II. State House.. . . 

State Capitol, Albany, N. Y. 

King’s Chapel, Boston. 

U. S. Court-house, Boston. 

Masonic Temple. 

Stairway, pilasters, etc., City Hall, 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Trinity Church, Boston.. 

Masonic Temple, Philadelphia. . . . 


Color. 


Light gray 
Light gray 
Light gray 
Dark gray 
Dark gray 
Dark gray 7 


New York Post-office. 

Post-office, Boston.1. 

City Hall, New York. 

Union Depot, Portland, Me. . 
Chaney Memorial Church, New¬ 
port, R. I. . . ;... 

Columns, State Capitol, Albany, 
N. Y... 


State, War, and Navy Department 
buildings, Washington, D. C, . . . 


Colorado State House. 

Utah Mormon Temple, Salt Lake 
City. 


Dark gray 

Pink 

Gray 

Red & pink 
Red & pink 


Red & greei 



Light gray 
and pink 


Gray 
Light 
dark 
Red mo 
with 
Gray & 
Blue gr: 


RESISTANCE OF PAVEMENTS TO WEAR. 


EXPERT TESTS MADE BY JOHN M. GREGORY FOR G. W. BARTHO¬ 
LOMEW OF THE PORTLAND CEMENT CO., DENVER, OF THE 
RESISTANCE TO WEAR OF THE VARIOUS PAVING STONES 
AND CEMENTS USED. 


Several good samples of each kind were made with one-inch 
square sections. They were pressed on a true-faced grind¬ 
stone, running 333 feet per minute, by a 1’0-pound weight, and 
the time necessary to grind A of an inch from the one-inch 
square surface of each determined. 

It was found that mortar made of one-fourth Portland 
cement and three-fourths sand resisted the wear of the stone 
six times as long as the hardest marble. The relative hardness 

















































STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 335 


LOCATION OF QUARRY AND BUILDING IN WHICH VARIOUS 
SANDSTONES HAVE BEEN USED. 


State. 

Location of 
Quarry. 

Building Used in. 

Color of Stone. 

Conn. . 

Portland . 

Technology Building, Boston. . . . 

Brown 

* * 

Astor Library, New York City. .. 

Brown 

• ft 

• ft 

Music Hall, Buffalo, N. Y . 

Brown 

4 l 

4 ft 

Union League Club B’ld’g. Pbila. 

Brown 

• ( 

ft ft 

Savings Bank of Baltimore. 

Brown 

4 t 

4 ft 

Residence of W. H. Vanderbilt, 
New York. . . 

Brown 

Colo. . 

Fort Collins. . . 

Grace Methodist Church, Denver 

Dark red 



Union Pacific Depot, Cheyenne, 

. Wyoming . 

Dark red 

Mass. . 

Longmeadow. . 

Union League Club, Chicago . 

Red 

4 ‘ 

Trimmings Trinity C’ch, Boston.. 

Red 

Mich. . 

Portage Entry 
(Lake Suoerior) 

New Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, N.Y. 

Red 

4 4 

Do. do. 

U. S. Post-office, Rockford, Ill . . . 

Red 

4 4 

Marquette .... 

Court House, Muskegon, Mich . . . 

Brown 

Minn. . 

Kettle River . . 

Library Bldg., Univ. of Illinois. .. 

Cream 

4 ft 

Fond du Lac. . 

Presbyterian Church, Minneap¬ 
olis, Minn . 

Reddish brown 

N. Y. . 

Potsdam. 

Parliament B’ld’gs, Ottawa, Ont. 

Red 

“ 

4 4 

Columbia College, New York City. 

Red 

4 4 

Medina. ...... 

U. S. Government Building, Roch¬ 
ester, N. Y. 

Pink 

Ohio. . 


Palmer House, Chicago. 

Buff 


State Capitol, Lansing, Mich .... 

Buff 

4 « 

4 4 

State Historical Library, Minne¬ 
apolis, Minn. 

Buff 

4 4 

4 4 

Wood Co., Ohio, Court House. .. . 

Gray 

4 4 

Berea. 

U. S. Post-office, Minneapolis, 
Minn. 

Blue-gray 

Pa. .. . 

Hummelstown 

U. S. Marine Barracks, League 
Island. 

Brown 


.of others is given by the minutes it took to grind A of an 
inch from the face of each, as follows: 

Minutes. 


Portland Cement, \ Cement, f sand. 100. 

Louisville cement, pure. 1.4 

Berea Paving Stone .. 2.4 

Excross Roads Paving Stone. 2 6 

Iberia Paving Stone. 2. 

Slag Cement, pure. 5. 

Hard Marble. 16. 

English Portland Cement. 25. 


Extensive trials in Boston and in Germany of relative resist¬ 
ance to wear of stone and cement confirm above figures. 









































336 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 

SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 POUNDS FOR SQUARE WOODEN 

PILLARS. 


Unsup¬ 
ported 
Length 
of Col- 



Size of Pillar in Inches. 



umn in 





1 



Feet. 

6X6 

8X8 

9X9 

10X10 

j 12X12 

14X14 

16X16 












White 

Pine or 

Spruce. 



6 

12.80 






.... 

8 

11.70 

22.7 

29.6 


• • • • 


.... 

10 

10.60 

21.3 

28.0 

35.5 

• • • • 

• • • • 

.... 

12 

9.54 

19.8 

26.3 

33.7 

51.1 


.... 

14 

8.46 

18.4 

24.7 

31.9 

49.0 

69.6 

.... 

16 

7.38 

17.0 

23.1 

30.1 

46.8 

67.0 

91.0 

18 


15.5 

21.5 

2S.3 

44.7 

64.5 

88.0 

20 


14.1 

19.8 

26.5 

42.5 

62.0 

85.2 

22 

• • • • 

.... 

18.2 

24.7 

40.3 

59.5 

82.3 

24 

.... 

.... 

.... 

22.9 

38.2 

57.0 

79-4 




White Oae. 










* 

6 

14.80 



• • • • 

• • • • 

.... 

• • • • 

8 

18.50 

26 .2 

34.0 

. . 

• • • • 

.... 


10 

12.20 

24.6 

32.4 

41.0 


.... 


12 

11.00 

22.7 

30.4 

39.1 

59. i 



14 

9.73 

21.1 

28.4 

36.7 

56.9 

80 A 


16 

8.64 

19.6 

26.5 

34.6 

54.0 

77.8 

iosio 

18 

.... 

17.8 

24.7 

32.4 

51.1 

74.5 

102.0 

20 

«... 

16.8 

22.7 

30.5 

49.1 

71.3 

98.5 

22 

• • • • 

.... 

21.1 

28.2 

46.1 

68.3 

94.7 

24 

.... 


.... 

26.4 

43.9 

65.5 

90.9 



* 

Yellow Pine (Southern). 

| 



6 

18.0 







8 

16.4 

32 !o 

41.6 


.... 



10 

14.9 

29.9 

39.4 

50.0 



.... 

12 

13.3 

27.8 

36.9 

47.6 

72.0 



14 

11.9 

25.8 

34.7 

44.7 

69.1 

98 !o 

.... 

132.0 

16 

10.4 

23.7 

32.3 

42.3 

65.5 

94.6 

128.0 

18 

.... 

21.8 

80.0 

39.5 

62.6 

90.7 

124.0 

20 

• • • .- 

19.8 

27.8 

37.0 

59.8 

86.9 

120.0 

22 

• • • • 

• • • • 

25.7 

34.6 

56.2 

83.6 

115.0 

24 

.... 

.... 

.... 

32.2 

53.3 

80.0 

111.0 





















































STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 337 


SAFE LOADS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED FOR RECTANGULAR 
SPRUCE OR WHITE-PINE BEAMS ONE INCH THICK. 

The following table has been calculated for extreme fibre stresses of 750 
pounds per square inch corresponding to the following values for moduli 
of rupture recommended by Prof. Lanza, viz.: 


Spruce and white pine. 3000 lbs. 

Oak. 4000 “ 

Yellow pine. 5000 “ 


For oak increase values in table by £. For yellow pine increase values In 
table by $. 

The safe load for any other values per square inch is found by increasing 
or decreasing the loads given in the table in the same proportion as the 
increased or decreased fibre stress. 


Depth of Beam. 


Span 


in 

Feet. 

6 

Ins. 

7 

Ins. 

8 

Ins. 

9 

Ins. 

10 

Ins. 

11 

Ins. 

12 

Ins. 

13 

Ins. 

14 

Ins. 

15 

Ins. 

16 

Ins. 

5 

600 

820 

1070 

1350 

1670 

2020 

2400 

2820 

3270 

3750 

4270 

6 

500 

680 

890 

1120 

1390 

1680 

2000 

2350 

2730 

3120 

3560 

7 

430 

580 

760 

960 

1190 

1440 

1710 

2010 

2330 

2680 

3050 

8 

380 

510 

670 

840 

1040 

1260 

1500 

1760 

2040 

2340 

2670 

9 

330 

460 

590 

750 

930 

1120 

1330 

1560 

1810 

2080 

2370 

10 

300 

410 

530 

670 

830 

1010 

1200 

1410 

1630 

1880 

2130 

11 

270 

370 

490 

610 

760 

920 

1090 

1280 

1490 

1710 

1940 

12 

250 

340 

440 

560 

690 

840 

1000 

1180 

1360 

1560 

1780 

13 

230 

310 

410 

520 

640 

780 

930 

1080 

1260 

1440 

1640 

14 

210 

290 

380 

480 

590 

720 

860 

1010 

1170 

1340 

1530 

15 

200 

270 

360 

450 

560 

670 

800 

940 

1090 

1250 

1420 

16 

190 

260 

330 

420 

520 

630 

750 

880 

1020 

1180 

1330 

17 

180 

240 

310 

400 

490 

590 

710 

830 

960 

1100 

1260 

18 

170 

230 

290 

370 

460 

560 

670 

780 

910 

1040 

1190 

19 

160 

210 

280 

360 

440 

530 

630 

740 

860 

990 

1130 

20 

150 

200 

270 

340 

420 

510 

600 

710 

820 

940 

1070 

21 

140 

190 

260 

320 

390 

480 

570 

670 

780 

890 

1020 

22 

140 

190 

240 

310 

380 

460 

540 

640 

740 

850 

970 

23 

130 

180 

230 

290 

360 

440 

520 

610 

710 

810 

920 

24 

130 

170 

220 

280 

350 

420 

500 

590 

680 

780 

890 

25 

120 

160 

210 

270 

330 

410 

480 

560 

660 

750 

860 

26 

110 

160 

210 

260 

320 

390 

460 

540 

630 

720 

820 

27 

110 

150 

200 

250 

310 

370 

440 

520 

610 

690 

790 

28 

110 

140 

190 

240 

300 

360 

430 

500 

580 

670 

760 

29 

110 

140 

180 

230 

290 

350 

410 

490 

560 

640 

740 


To obtain the safe load for any thickness multiply values for 1 inch by 
thickness of beam. 

To obtain the required thickness for any load divide by safe load for 
1 inch. 























338 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


STRENGTH, WEIGHT, ETC., OF VARIOUS WOODS. 


Name. 

Strength per 
Sq. In. in Lbs. 

■ Moduli 
r of Elas- 
; ticity. 

Relative 

Hardn’ss 

Shell- 

bark 

Hickory 

being 

1000. 

’ Weight 
per 
Cubic 
Foot. 

Specific 

Gravity, 

Tensile. 

Crushing 
in Direc¬ 
tion of 
Grain. 






46.5 

.750 



6,150 



50 

.800 




700 

49 

.793 

Ash (white). 

17,000 

8,600 


775 

40.77 

.610 

Ash (brown). . . . 

11,000 




38.96 

.623 

Boxwood. 

18,000 

10,000 



62 

.990 


15,000 

8,000 


630 

35.44 

.567 


11,500 

9,000 


660 

40.42 

.650 

Butternut. 

9,000 

6,000 


440 

23.50 

.376 

Cherry. 



550 

44.70 

.715 

Chestnut. 

10,500 

5,000 

1,000,000 

520 

41.25 

.660 

Cork. 





15 

.240 

Cedar (white). . . 

11,400 

6,500 

700,000 

540 

37.25 

.596 

Cedar (red). 

9,000 

6,000 



35 

.560 

Cypress. 

5,000 

6,000 

900,000 


27.60 

.441 

Dogwood. 



750 

47 25 

.750 

Ebony. 




86.16 

1.331 

Elm. 

13,000 

8,000 


580 

42 

.671 

Fir. 

10,000 

7,000 

1,200,000 

32 

.512 

Gum. 

17,000 

7,000 


52.. 69 

.843 

Hazel. 


720 

53.75 

.860 

Holly. 





47.50 

.760 

Hickory (pignut) 

15,000 

9,000 


950 

49.50 

.792 

Hickory (shell- 







bark). 

18,000 

10,000 


1000 

43.12 

.690 

Hemlock. 

8,740 

5,400 

900,000 

23.00 

.368 

Hackmatack.. . . 



37.00 

.592 

Juniper. 





35.37 

.566 

Lancewood. 





45 

.720 

Larch. 

9,500 




34.55 

.552 

Lignum-vitae.... 

12,000 

9,000 



83.31 

1.333 

Logwood. 





57.06 

.913 

Locust. 

20,000 

] 1,720 



45.50 

.728 

Mahogany. 

12,000 

6,000 



55.75 

.829 

Maple (hard).. . . 

10,000 

9,000 


550 

46.87 

.750 

Maple (white). .. 

10,000 

7,000 



36 

.576 

Oak (white). 

16,000 

6,000 

1,100,000 

850 

53.75 

.860 

Oak (red or 







black). 

10,000 

8,000 


700 

40.75 

.652 

Pear. 

9,800 


47 

.752 

Plum. 




49.06 

.785 

Poplar. 

7,000 

5,000 


510 

23 99 

.383 

Pine (white). . . . 

7,000 

5,000 

1,000,000 

300 

30 

.480 

Pine (Norway). . 

8,300 

7,000 

1,200,000 


33.25 

.532 

Pine (yellow). . . 

16,000 

5,500 

1,200,000 

540 

38.40 

.612 

Pine(yellow long- 







leaf). 

20,000 

9,000 

1,700 000 


43 62 

.698 

Pine (Oregon). .. 

13,800 

7,000 

1,400,000 


34 

.544 

Rosewood. 





45 50 

.728 

Redwood (Cal.).. 

8,000 

2,500 

7,00000 


26.23 

.419 

Satinwood. 





55.31 

.885 

Spruce (white). . 

14,000 

6,500 

1,200,000 


31.25 

.500 

Tamarack. 





23.93 

.383 

Walnut. 

10,000 

8,000 


650 

41.93* 

.671 

Willow. 

12,000 


33.40 

.535 








































































































STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 339 


ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF HOLLOW ROUND AND HOLLOW 
RECTANGULAR CAST-IRON COLUMNS. 


Ultimate strength in pounds per square inch: 


Round Columns. Rectangular Columns. 


Square 

Bearing. 

80000 

Pin and 
Square. 
80000 

Pin 

Bearing. 

80000 

Square 

Bearing. 

80000 

Pin and 
Square. 
80000 

Pin 

Bearing. 

800C0 

, , (120 2 
800cf 2 

, 3(120 2 

+ 1600d 2 

, , (120 2 

1 400d 2 

3(120 2 

3200d 2 

. 9(120 2 

+ 6400d 2 

, . 3(12i) 3 

1600d 2 


? = length of column in feet; 1 

d — external diameter or least side of rectangle in inches. 


l 

d 

Round Columns. 

Ultimate Strength in Pounds 
per Square Inch. 

Rectangular Columns. 

Ultimate Strength in Pounds 
per Square Inch. 

Square 

Bearing. 

Pin and 
Square. 

Pin 

Bearing. 

Square 

Bearing. 

Pin and 
Square. 

Pin 

Bearing. 

1.0 

67800 

62990 

58820 

70480 

66520 

62990 

1.1 

65690 

60300 

55730 

68790 

64200 

60300 

1.2 

63530 

57600 

52690 

67000 

61940 

57600 

1.3 

61340 

54930 

49740 

65140 

59600 

54960 

1.4 

59140 

52310 

46900 

63260 

57270 

52320 

1.5 

56940 

49770 

44290 

61350 

54900 

49760 

1.6 

54760 

47300 

41630 

59450 

52680 

47300 

1.7 

52620 

44940 

39210 

57550 

50400 

44960 

1.8 

50530 

42670 

36930 

55670 

48300 

42670 

1.9 

48490 

40510 

34790 

53800 

46230 

40510 

2.0 

46510 

38460 

32790 

51940 

44290 

384G0 

2.1 

44600 

36520 

30920 

50160 

42260 

36520 

2.2 

42750 

34680 

29180 

48400 

40400 

34680 

2.3 

40980 

32940 

27540 

46670 

38630 

32950 

2.4 

39280 

31310 

26030 

44990 

36930 

• 31310 

2.5 

37650 

29770 

24620 

43390 

35310 

29760 

2.6 

36090 

2S320 

23300 

41820 

33770 

23320 

2.7 

34600 

26950 

22070 

40320 

32310 

26950 

2.8 

33180 

25670 

20930 

38870 

30920 

25670 

2.9 

31820 

24460 

19860 

37470 

29600 

24460 

3.0 

30530 

23320 

18870 

36120 

23340 

23320 

3.1 

29310 

22250 

17940 

34830 

27150 

22250 

3.2 

28140 

21250 

17070 

33580 

26030 

21250 

3.3 

27030 

20300 

16260 

32390 

24960 

20300 

3.4 

25970 

19410 

15500 

31240 

23940 

19410 
































340 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 3000 LBS. FOR HOLLOW ROUND 

CAST-IRON COLUMNS. 


Outside Diam-! 

eter, Inches. 

Thickness of 
Metal. 

length of Columns in Feet. 

| Sectional Area, 

! Inches. 

| Weight, Lbs. 

1 of Col. per 

I Ft. ofL’gth. 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

A 

1 

OR 9 

23 0 

20 1 

17 5 

15.2 

13.2 

11.5 



8.6 

26.95 

D 

A 

2 

2. 

^7 5 

33 0 

28 8 

25 6 

21.7 

18.9 

16.5 



12.4 

38.59 

D 

A 

t 

7 

A9 7 

37 6 

32 8 

28 5 

24.7 

21.5 

18.8 



14.1 

43.96 

U 

A 

8 

1 

47 6 

41 9 

36 5 

31.8 

27.6 

24.0 

21.0 



15.7 

49.01 

6 

li 

52.2 

46.0 

40.1 

34.8 

30.2 

26.3 

23.0 

. 

. 

17.2 

53.76 

7 

i 

47.7 

43.1 

38.5 

34.3 

30.4 

26.9 

23.9 

21.2 

18.9 

14.7 

45.96 

7 

l 

61.1 

55.2 

49.3 

43.8 

38.9 

34.4 

30.6 

27.1 

24.2 

18.9 

58.90 

7 

n 

67.2 

60.8 

54.3 

48.3 

42.8 

37.9 

33.7 

29.9 

26.7 

20.8 

64.77 

8 

i 

57.9 

53.3 

48.6 

44.1 

39.7 

35.8 

32.2 

28.9 

26.1 

17.1 

53.29 

8 

i 

74.6 

68.7 

62.5 

56.7 

51.1 

46.0 

41.4 

37.3 

33.6 

22.0 

68.64 

8 

H 

89.9 

82.8 

75.5 

68.4 

61.7 

55.5 

49.9 

44.9 

40.5 

26.5 

82.71 

9 

i 

68.1 

63.6 

58.9 

54.2 

49.6 

45.2 

41.2 

37.5 

34.1 

19.4 

60.65 

9 

1 

88.0 

82.3 

76.2 

70.0 

64.1 

58.4 

53.2 

48.4 

44.1 

25.1 

78.40 

9 

it 

106.6 

99.6 

92.2 

84.8 

77.6 

70.8 

64.4 

58.7 

53.4 

30.4 

94.94 

9 

H 

123.8 

115.7 

107.1 

98.5 

90.1 

82.2 

74.8 

68.1 

62.0 

35.3 

110.26 

S 

H 

139.6 

130.5 

120.8 

111.1 

101.6 

92.7 

84.4 

76.8 

69.9 

39.9 

124.36 

10 

l 

101.4 

95.9 

89.8 

83.6 

77.4 

71.5 

65.8 

60.5 

55.5 

28.3 

88.23 

10 

H 

123.3 

116.5 

109.1 

101.6 

94.1 

86.8 

79.9 

73.4 

67.5 

34.4 

107.23 

10 

H 

143.7 

135.8 

127.3 

118.5 

109.7 

101.2 

9T2I 

85.6 

78.7 

40.1 

124.99 

10 

U 

162.7 

153.8 

144.1 

134.1 

124.2 

114.6 

105.5 

97.0 

89.1 

45.4 

141.65 

11 

l 

114.8 

109.4 

103.5 

97.3 

91.0 

84.8 

80.2 

73.1 

67.7 

31.4 

98.03 

11 

n 

139.9 

133.3 

126.1 

118.6 

110.9 

103.3 

97.8 

89.4 

82.5 

‘38.3 

119.46 

11 

l* 

163.5 

155.9 

147.5 

138.6 

128.7 

120.8 

114*3 

104.1 

96.4 

44.8 

139.68 

11 

U 

185.7 

177.1 

167.5 

157.5 

147.3 

137.2 

129.8 

118.3 

109.5 

50.9 

158.68 

11 

2 

206.6 

196.9 

186.3 

175.1 

163.8 

152.6 

144.4 

131.5 

121.8 

56.6 

176.44 

12 

l 

128.0 

122.9 

117.2 

111.0 

104.7 

98.4 

92.2 

86.1 

80.4 

34.6 

107.51 

12 

H 

156.4 

150.1 

143.1 

135.7 

127.9 

120.2 

1126 

105.2 

98.2 

42.2 

131.41 

12 

U 

183.3 

175.9 

167.7 

159.0 

149.9 

140.9 

132.0 

123.3 

115.1 

49.5 

154.10 

12 

li 

20S.7 

200.4 

191.0 

' 181.1 

170.7 

160.4 

150.3 

140.5 

131.1 

56.4 

175.53 

12 

2 

232.7 

223.4 

213.0 

201.9 

190.4 

178.9 

167.6 

156.6 

146.1 

62.8 

195.75 

13 

1 

141.2 

136.3 

130.7 

124.7 

118.5 

112.1 

105.8 

99.5 

93.5 

37.7 

117.53 

13 

H 

172.8 

166.8 

160.0 

152.7 

145.0 

137.2 

12 .4 

121.8 

114.4 

46.1 

143.86 

13 

H 

203.0 

195.9 

187.9 

179.3 

170.3 

161.1 

152.0 

D3.1 

134.3 

54.2 

168.98 

13 

U 

231.6 

223.6 

214.5 

204 7 

194.4 

183.9 

17,3.5 

163.3 

153.3 

61.9 

192.88 

13 

2 

258.9 

249.9 

239.7 

228.7 

217.3 

205 6 

193.9 

182.5 

171.3 

69.1 

215.56 

14 

1 

154.3 

149.6 

144.3 

138.5 

132.3 

125.9 

119.5 

113.1 

106.8 

40.8 

127.60 

14 

H 

189.2 

183.4 

176.9 

169.7 

162.2 

154.4 

146.5 

138.6 

131.0 

50.1 

156.31 

14 

n 

222.6 

215.8 

208.1 

199.7 

190.8 

181.7 

172.3 

163.1 

154.1 

58.9 

183.67 

14 

li 

254.4 

246.7 

237.9 

228.3 

218.1 

267.6 

197.0 

186.5 

176.2 

67.4 

210.00 

14 

2 

284.8 

276.2 

266.4 

255.6 

244.2 

232.4 

220.6 

208.8 

197.2 

75.4 

235.12 

15 

1 

167.4 

162.9 

157.8 

152.1 

146.0 

139.7 

133.3 

126.8 

120.4 

44.0 

137.28 

15 

H 

205.5 

200.0 

193.7 

186.7 

179.3 

171.5 

163.6 

155.7 

147.9 

54.0 

168.48 

15 

Hr 

242.1 

235.7 

228.2 

220.0 

211.2 

202.1 

192.8 

183.5 

174.2 

63.6 

198.74 

15 

li 

277.2 

269.8 

261.3 

251.9 

241.9 

231.4 

220.7 

210.1 

199.5 

72.9 

227.45 

15 

2 

310.8 

302.5 

293.0 

282.5 

271.2 

259.5 

247.5 

235.5 

223.6 

81.7 

254.90 


If all cast-iron or other hollow columns are filled with concrete after 
being set it adds to their strength and affords protection from rust and 
fire. 




































STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 341 


SAFE LOADS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED FOR STANDARD AND 

SPECIAL I BEAMS. 

In Tons of 2000 Lbs. 


Distance between 
Supports in Feet. 

24" I. 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

20 

' I. 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

18" I. 

1 Add for Every Lb. 

1 Increase in Weight. 

15" I. 

1 Add for Every Lb. 

Increase in Weight. 

80 

Lbs. 

80 

Lbs. 

65 

Lbs. 

55 

Lbs. 

80 

Lbs. 

60 

Lbs. 

42 

Lbs. 

12 

77.33 

.53 

65.18 

51.98 

.44 

39.29 

.39 

47.14 

36.09 

26.18 

.33 

13 

71.38 

.48 

60.16 

47.98 

.40 

36.27 

.36 

43.51 

33.31 

24.17 

.30 

14 

66.28 

.45 

55.87 

44.56 

.37 

33.68 

.34 

40.40 

30.93 

22.44 

.28 

15 

61.86 

.42 

52.14 

41.59 

.35 

31.43 

.31 

37.71 

28.87 

20.94 

.26 

46 

58.00 

.39 

48.88 

38.99 

.33 

29.47 

.29 

35.35 

27.07 

19.63 

.24 

1.7 

54.5S 

.37 

46.01 

36.69 

.31 

27.74 

.28 

33.27 

25.47 

18.48 

.23 

18 

51.56 

.35 

43.45 

34.66 

.29 

26.19 

.26 

31.42 

24.06 

17.45 

.22 

19 

48.84 

.33 

41.17 

32.83 

.28 

24.82 

.25 

29.77 

22.79 

16.53 

.21 

20 

46.40 

.32 

39.11 

31.19 

.26 

23.58 

.24 

28.28 

21.65 

15.71 

.20 

21 

44.19 

.30 

37.24 

29.70 

.25 

22.45 

. 22 

26.94 

20.62 

14.96 

.19 

22 

42.18 

.29 

35.55 

28.35 

.24 

21.43 

.21 

25.71 

19.68 

14.28 

.18 

23 

40.35 

.27 

34.01 

27.12 

.23 

20.50 

.20 

24.59 

18.83 

13.66 

.17 

24 

38.67 

.26 

32.59 

25.99 

.22 

19.65 

.20 

23.57 

18.04 

03.19 

.16 

25 

37.12 

.25 

31.29 

24.95 

.21 

18.86 

.19 

22.63 

17.32 

12.57 

.16 

26 

35.69 

.24 

30.08 

23.99 

.20 

18.14 

.18 

21.76 

16.66 

12.08 

.15 

27 

34.37 

.23 

28.97 

23.10 

.19 

17.46 

.17 

20.95 

16.04 

11.64 

.14 

28 

33.14 

.23 

27.93 

22.28 

.19 

16.84 

.17 

20.20 

15.47 

11.22 

.14 

29 

32.00 

.22 

26.97 

21.51 

.18 

16.26 

.16 

19.51 

14.93 

10.83 

.13 

30 

30.93 

.21 

26.07 

20.79 

.17 

15.72 

.16 

18.86 

14.43 

10.47 

.13 

31 

29.94 

.20 

25.23 

20.12 

.17 

15.21 

.15 

18.25 

13.97 

10.13 

.13 

32 

29.00 

.20 

24.44 

19.49 

.16 

14.73 

.15 

17.68 

13.53 

9.82 

.12 

33 

28.12 

.19 

23.70 

18.90 

.16 

14.29 

.14 

17.14 

13.12 

9.52 

.12 

34 

27.29 

.19 

23.00 

18.35 

.15 

13.87 

.14 

16.64 

12.74 

9.24 

.11 

35 

26.51 

.18 

22.35 

17.82 

.15 

13.47 

.13 

16.16 

12.37 

8.98 

.11 

36 

25.78 

.18 

21.73 

17.33 

. 15(13.10 

1 

.13 

15.71 

12.03 

8.73 

.11 


Safe loads given include weight of beam. Maximum fibre stress, 16,000 


lbs. per square inch. 





































342 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


SAFE LOADS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED FOR STANDARD AND 

SPECIAL I BEAMS. 


In Tons of 2000 Lbs. 


I Distance between 

Supports in Feet. 

12 " I. 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

10" I. 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

9" I. 

1 Add for Every Lb. 

Increase in Weight. 

Distance between 

Supports in Feet. 

8" I. 

Add for Every Lb. 

Increase in Weight . 

40 

Lbs. 

31.5 

Lbs. 

25 

Lbs. 

21 

Lbs. 

18 

Lbs. 

12 

19.92 

15.99 

.26 

10.85 

.22 

8.39 

.20 

5 

15.17 

.42 

13 

18.39 

14.76 

.24 

10.02 

.20 

7.74 

.18 

6 

12.64 

.35 

14 

17.03 

13.70 

.23 

9.30 

.19 

7.19 

.17 

7 

10.84 

.30 

15 

15.94 

12.79 

.21 

8.68 

.17 

6.71 

.16 

8 

9.48 

.26 

16 

14.94 

11.99 

.20 

8.14 

.16 

6.29 

.15 

9 

8.43 

.23 

17 

14.06 

11.29 

.19 

7.66 

.15 

5.92 

.14 

10 

7.59 

.21 

18 

13.28 

10.66 

.18 

7.24 

.14 

5.59 

.13 

11 

6.90 

.19 

19 

12.58 

10.10 

.17 

6.86 

.14 

5.30 

.12 

12 

6.32 

.18 

20 

11.95 

9.59 

.16 

6.51 

.13 

5.03 

.12 

13 

5.83 

.16 

21 

11 . 3o 

9.14 

.15 

6.20 

.12 

4.79 

.11 

14 

5.42 

.15 

22 

10.87 

8.72 

.14 

5.92 

.12 

4.58 

.11 

15 

5.06 

.14 

23 

10.39 

8.34 

.14 

5.66 

.11 

4.38 

.10 

16 

4.74 

.13 

24 

9.96 

7.99 

.13 

5.43 

.11 

4.19 

.10 

17 

4.46 

.12 

25 

9.56 

7.67 

.13 

5.21 

.10 

4.03 

.09 

18 

4.21 

.12 

26 

9.19 

7.38 

.12 

5.01 

.10 

3.87 

.09 

19 

3.99 

.11 

27 

8.85 

7.11 

.12 

4.82 

.10 

3.73 

.09 

20 

3.79 

.11 

28 

8.54 

6.85 

.11 

4.65 

.09 

3.59 

.08 

21 

3.61 

.10 

29 

8.24 

6.62 

.11 

4.49 

.09 

3.47 

.08 




30 

7.97 

6.40 

.11 

4.34 

.09 

3.36 

.08 





Safe loads given include weight of beam. Maximum fibre stress, 16,000 
lbs. per square inch. 


























STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 343 


SAFE LOADS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED FOR STANDARD AND 
SPECIAL I BEAMS. 

In Tons of 2000 Lbs. 


Distance between 
Supports in Feet. 

7" I. 

; Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

6" I. 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

5" I. 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

4" I. 

Add for Every Lb. 

Increase in Weight. 

3" I. 

Add for Every Lb. 

Increase in Weight. 1 

15 

lbs. 

12.21 

lbs. 

9.75 

lbs. 

7.5 

lbs. 

5.5 

lbs. 

5 

11.041.36 

7.75 

.31 

5.16 

.26 

3.18 

.21 

1.76 

.16 

6 

9.20 

.30 

6.46 

.26 

4.30 

.22 

2.65 

.18 

1.47 

.13 

7 

7.89 

.26 

5.54 

.22 

3.69 

.19 

2.27 

.15 

1.26 

.11 

8 

6.90 

.23 

4.84 

.19 

3.23 

.16 

1.99 

.13 

1.10 

.10 

9 

6.13 

.20 

4.31 

.17 

2.b7 

.14 

1.77 

.12 

0.98 

.09 

10 

5.52 

.13 

3.88 

.16 

2.58 

.13 

1.59 

.11 

0.88 

.08 

11 

5.02 

.16 

3.52 

.14 

2.35 

.12 

1.45 

.10 

0.80 

.07 

12 

4.60 

.15 

3.23 

.13 

2.15 

.11 

1.33 

.09 

0.73 

.07 

13 

4.25 

.14 

2.98 

.12 

1.98 

.10 

1.22 

.08 

0.68 

.06 

14 

3.94 

.13 

2.77 

.11 

1.84 

.09 

1.14 

.08 

0.63 

.06 

15 

3.63 

.12 

2.58 

.10 

1.72 

.09 

1.06 

.07 

0.59 

.05 

16 

3.45 

.11 

2.42 

.10 

1.61 

.08 

0.99 

.07 

0.55 

.05 

17 

3.25 

.11 

2.28 

.09 

1.52 

.08 

0.94 

.06 

0.52 

.05 

18 

3.07 

.10 

2.15 

.09 

1.43 

.07 

0.88 

.06 

0.49 

.04 

19 

2.91 

.09 

2.04 

.08 

1.36 

.07 

0.84 

.06 

0.46 

.04 

20 

2.76 

.09 

1.94 

.08 

1.29 

.07 

0.80 

.05 

0.44 

.04 

21 

2.63 

.09 

1.85 .07 

1.23 

.06 

0.76 

.05 

0.42 

.04 


Safe loads given include weight of beam. Maximum fibre stress. 16.000 


lbs. per square inch. 




































344 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


SAFE LOADS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED FOR STANDARD AND 
SPECIAL CHANNELS. 

In Tons of 2000 Lbs. 


Distance between 
Supports in Feet. 

15" C 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

12" □ 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

10" Q 

Add for Every Lb. 

Increase in Weight. 

9" C 

Add for Every Lb. 

Increase in Weight. 

33 

lbs. 

+ 

20.5 

lbs. 

15 

lbs. 

13.25 

lbs. 

10 

22.23 

.39 

11.39 

.32 

7.14 

.26 

5.61 

.24 

11 

20.20 

.35 

10.35 

.29 

6.49 

.24 

5.10 

.21 

12 

18.52 

.33 

9.49 

.26 

5.95 

.22 

4.68 

.20 

13 

17.10 

.30 

8.76 

.24 

5.49 

.20 

4.32 

.18 

14 

15.87 

.28 

8.14 

.23 

5.10 

.19 

4.01 

.17 

15 

14.82 

.26 

7.59 

.21 

4.76 

.17 

3.74 

.16 

16 

13.89 

.24 

7.12 

.20 

4.46 

.16 

3.51 

.15 

17 

13.07 

.23 

6.70 

.18 

4.20 

.15 

3.30 

.14 

18 

12.35 

.22 

6.33 

.18 

3.96 

.14 

3.12 

.13 

19 

11.70 

.21 

5.99 

.17 

3.76 

.14 

2.95 

.12 

20 

11.11 

.20 

5.70 

.16 

3.57 

.13 

2.81 

.12 

21 

10.58 

.19 

5.42 

.15 

3.40 

.12 

2.67 

.11 

22 

10.10 

.18 

,5.18 

.14 

3.24 

.12 

2.55 

.11 

23 

9.66 

.17 

4.95 

.14 

3.10 

.11 

2.44 

.10 

24 

9.26 

.16 

4.75 

.13 

2.97 

.11 

2.34 

.10 

25 

8.89 

.16 

4.56 

.13 

2.85 

.10 

2.24 

.09 

26 

8.55 

.15 

4.38 

.12 

2.74 

.10 

2.16 

.09 

27 

8.23 

.14 

4.22 

.12 

2.64 

.10 

2.08 

.09 

28 

7.94 

.14 

4.07 

.11 

2.55 

.09 

2.00 

.08 

29 

7.66 

.13 

3.93 

.11 

2.46 

.09 

1.93 

.08 

30 

7.41 

.13 

3.80 

.11 

2.38 

:09 

1.87 

.08 


Safe loads given include weight of channel. Maximum fibre stress, 16,000 I 
lbs, per square inch. 




















strength, etc., of VARIOUS MATERIALS. 345 


SAFE LOADS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED FOR STANDARD AND 
SPECIAL CHANNELS. 


In Tons of 2000 Lbs. 


Distance between 
Supports in Feet. | 

S"C 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

7"C 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

6" □ 

Add for Every Lb. 
Increase in Weight. 

5"C 

Add for Every Lb. 

Increase in Weight. 

4"C 

Lb. 

eight. 

, 3"C 

Add for Every Lb. 
i Increase in Weight. 

11.25 

Lbs. 

9.75 

Lbs. 

8 

Lbs. 

6.5 

Lbs. 

5.25 

Lbs. 

Add for Every ’ 

Increase in W 

4 

Lbs. 

5 

8.61 

.42 

6.68 

.36 

4.62 

.31 

3.16 

.26 

2.02 

.21 

1.16 

.16 

6 

7.18 

.35 

5.57 

.30 

3.85 

.26 

2.63 

.22 

1.68 

.18 

.97 

.13 

7 

6.15 

.30 

4.77 

.26 

3.30 

.22 

2.26 

.19 

1.44 

.15 

.83 

.11 

8 

5.38 

.26 

4.18 

.23 

2.89 

.19 

1.98 

.16 

1.26 

.13 

.73 

.10 

9 

4.78 

.23 

3.71 

.20 

2.57 

.17 

1.76 

.14 

1.12 

.12 

.64 

.09 

10 

4.31 

.21 

3.34 

.18 

2.31 

.16 

1.53 

.13 

1.01 

.11 

.58 

.08 

11 

3.91 

.19 

3.04 

.16 

2.10 

.14 

1.44 

.12 

.92 

.10 

.53 

.07 

12 

3.59 

.18 

2.78 

.15 

1.93 

.13 

1.32 

.11 

.84 

.09 

.48 

.07 

13 

3.31 

.16 

2.57 

.14 

1.78 

.12 

1.22 

.10 

.78 

.08 

.45 

.06 

14 

3.08 

.15 

2.39 

.13 

1.65 

.11 

1.13 

.09 

.72 

.08 

.41 

.06 

15 

2.87 

.14 

2.23 

.12 

1.54 

.10 

1.05 

.09 

.67 

.07 

.39 

.05 

16 

2.69 

.13 

2.09 

.11 

1.44 

.10 

.99 

.08 

.63 

.07 

.36 

.05 

17 

2.53 

.12 

1.96 

.11 

1.36 

.09 

.93 

.08 

.59 

.06 

.34 

.05 

18 

2.39 

.11 

1.86 

.10 

1.28 

.09 

.88 

.07 

.56 

.06 

.32 

.04 

19 

2.27 

.11 

1.76 

.09 

1.22 

.08 

.83 

.07 

.53 

.06 

.31 

.04 

20 

2.15 

.11 

1.67 

.09 

1.16 

.08 

.79 

.07 

.51 

.05 

.29 

.04 

21 

2.05 

.10 

1.59 

.09 

1.10 

.07 

.75 

.06 

.48 

.05 

.28 

.04 

22 

1.96 

.10 

1.52 

.OS 

1.05 

.07 

.72 

.06 

.46 

.05 

.26 

.04 

23 

1.87 

.09 

1.45 

.08 

1.00 

.07 

.69 

.06 

.44 

.05 

.25 

.03 

24 

1.79 

.09 

1.39 

.08 

.96 

.06 

.66 

.05 

.42 

.04 

.24 

.03 

25 

1.72 

.08 

1.34 

.07 

.92 

.06 

.63 

.05 

.40 

.04 

.23 

.03 


Safe loads given include weight of channel. Maximum fibre stress, 16,000 
lbs. per square inch. 































346 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


WEIGHT, STRENGTH, ETC., OF STANDARD HOISTING ROTE 


Composed of Six Strands and a Hemp Centre, Nineteen Wires to the Strand 

Swedish Iron. 


Trade 

Number. 

Diameter 
in Inches. 

Approxi¬ 
mate 
Circum¬ 
ference in 
Inches. 

Weight 
per Foot 
in 

Pounds. 

Approxi¬ 
mate 
Breaking 
Strain in 
Tons of 
2000 
Pounds. 

Allowable 
Working 
Strain in 
Tons of 
2000 
Pounds. 

Minimum 
Size of 
Drum or 
Sheave 
in Feet. 


2| 

85 

11.95 

114 

22.8 

16 


2} 

71 

9.85 

95 

18.9 

15 

i 

2} 

7i 

8.00 

78 

15.60 

13 

2 

2 


6.30 

62 

12.40 

12 

3 

1* 

si 

4.85 

48 

9.60 

10 

4 

H 

5 

4.15 

42 

8.40 

8* 

5 

15 

4* 

3.55 

36 

7.20 

7* 

5* 


4* 

3.00 

31 

6.20 

7 

6 

15 

4 

2.45 

25 

5.00 

6* 

7 

H 

3} 

2.00 

21 

4.23 

6 

8 

l 

3 

1.58 

17 

3.40 

5* 

9 

I 

21 

1.20 

13 

2.60 

4i 

10 


2} 

0.89 

9.7 

1.94 

4 

101 

1 

2 

0.62 

6.8 

1.36 

3* 

10} 

A 

11 

0.50 

5.5 

1.10 

2* 

10* 


H 

0.39 

4.4 

0.88 

2* 

10a 

T5 

li 

0.30 

3.4 

0.68 

2 

106 

1 

11 

0.22 

2.5 

0.50 

1* 

10c 


l 

0.15 

1.7 

0.34 

1 

lOd 

1 

1 

0.10 

1.2 

0.24 

* 


Cast Steed. 



2* 

85 

11.95 

223 

45.6 

10 


2} 

75 

9.85 

190 

37.9 

95 

1 

2} 

75 

8.00 

156 

31.2 

85 

2 

2 

65 

6.30 

124 

24.8 

8 

3. 

1* 

55 

4.85 

96 

19.2 

75 

4 

15 

5 

4.15 

84 

16.8 

65 

5 

15 

4* 

3.55 

72 

14.4 

5* 

5} 

15 

45 

3.00 

62 

12.4 

55 

• 6 

n 

4 

2.45 

53 

10.0 

5 

7 

H 

35 

2.00 

42 

8.40 

45 

8 

l 

3 

1.58 

34 

6.80 

4 

9 

i 

2* 

1.20 

26 

5.20 

35 

10 

i 

2} 

0.89 

19.4 

3.88 

3 

10* 

5 

2 

0.62 

13.6 

2.72 

25 

10} 

A 

1* 

0.50 

11.0 

2.23 

1* 

10* 

5 

15 

0.39 

8.8 

1.76 

15 

13a 

A 

1} 

0.30 

6.8 

1.36 

15 

106 

5 

15 

0.22 

5.0 

1.00 

1 

10c 

A 

1 

0.15 

3.4 

0.68 

5 

lOd 

5 

5 

0.10 

2.4 

0.48 

5 





























STRENGTH, ETC., OE VARIOUS MATERIALS. 347 


WEIGHT, STRENGTH, ETC., OF EXTRA STRONG CRUCIBLE 
CAST-STEEL ROPE. 

Composed of Six Strands and a Hemp Centre, Nineteen Wires to the Strand. 


Trade 

Number. 

Diameter 
in Inches. 

Approxi¬ 
mate 
Circum¬ 
ference in 
Inches. 

Weight 
per Foot 
in 

Pounds. 

Approxi¬ 
mate 
Breaking 
Strain in 
Tons of 
2000 
Pounds. 

Allowable 
Working 
Strain in 
Tons of 
2000 
Pounds. 

Minimum 
Size of 
Drum or 
Sheave 
in Feet. 


21 

8f 

11.95 

266 

53 

10 


21 

71 

9.85 

222 

45 

9* 

i 

21 

71 

8.00 

182 

36.4 

81 

2 

2 

01 

6.30 

144 

28.8 

8 

3 

If 

51 

4.85 

112 

22.4 

7f 

4 

11 

5 

4.15 

97 

19.4 

6f 

5 

11 

41 

3.55 

84 

16.8 

5f 

5* 

If 

41 

3.00 

72 

14.4 

5* 

6 

11 

4 

2.45 

53 

11.6 

5 

7 

if 

31 

2.00 

49 

9.80 

H 

8 

l 

3 

1.58 

39 

7.80 

4 

9 


21 

1.20 

30 

6.00 

3* 

10 


21 

0.89 

22 

4.40 * 

3 

101 

6 

B 

2 

0.62 

15.8 

3.16 

21 

iof 

9 

TS 

H 

0.50 

12.7 

2.54 

If 

101 

1 

H 

0.39 

10.1 

2.02 

n 

10a 

7 

H 

0.30 

7.8 

1.56 

if 

106 

1 

H 

0.22 

5.78 

1.15 

i 

10c 

A 

l 

0.15 

4.05 

0-81 

f 

lOd 

1 

1 

0.10 

2.70 

0.54 

f 


Seven Wires to the Strand. 


ii 

If 

4f 

3.55 

79 

15.8 

8f 

12 

11 

4 f 

3.00 

68 

13.6 

8 

13 

li 

4 

2.45 

56 

11.2 

7f 

14 

If 

3f 

2.00 

46 

9.20 

6f 

15 

1 

3 

1.58 

37 

7.40 

5f 

If 

i 

2f 

1.20 

23 

5.60 

5 

1? 

f 

2f 

0.89 

21 

4.20 

4f 

18 

fi 

2! 

0.75 

18.4 

3.68 

4 

19 

$ 

2 

0.62 

15.1 

3.02 

3f 

20 

A 

If 

0.50 

12.3 

2.46 

3 

21 

f 

If 

0.39 

9.70 

1.94 

2f 

22 

A 

If 

0.30 

7.50 

1.50 

2f 

23 

i 

H 

0.22 

5.58 

1.11 

2 

24 

% 

1 

0.15 

3.88 

0.77 

If 

25 

A 

i 

0.125 

3.22 

0.64 

If 
























348 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


WEIGHT, STRENGTH, ETC., OF COPPER, IRON, TINNED AND 
GALVANIZED SASH-CORDS. 


Composed of Six Strands and a Cotton Centre, Seven. Wires to the Strand. 


Trade 

Number. 

Diameter 
in Inches. 

Weight per Foot in 
Pounds. 

Approximate Breaking Strain 
in Pounds. 

Iron. 

Copper. 

Iron. 

Bright 

Copper. 

Bright. 

Annealed. 

26 

i 

0.100 

0.115 

2200 

1600 

1265 

27 

ft 

0.076 

0.087 

1809 

1254 

1022 

27} 

A 

0.056 

0.064 

1417 

947 

792 

28 

i 

0.025 

0.029 

790 

467 

435 

28} 

A 

0.014 

0.016 

510 

280 

272 

29 

A 

0.006 

0.007 

262 

132 

140 


APPROXIMATE WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF MANILA ROPE. 

Manila, Sisal, New Zealand, and Jute Ropes weigh (about) alike. Tarred 
Hemp Cordage will weigh (about) one-fourth more. Manila is about 25 
per cent stronger than Sisal. Working load about one-fourth of breaking 
strain. 


Circumfer¬ 
ence in 
Inches. 

Diameter 
in Inches. 

Weight of 
1000 Feet 
in Pounds. 

Number of 
Feet and 
Inches in 

One Pound. 

Strength of 
New Manila 
Rope in 
Pounds. 




Ft. 

Ins. 


i 

} 

23 

50 


450 

1 

A 

33 

33 


780 

1} 

i 

42 

25 


1,000 

1} 

A 

52 

19 


1,280 

1} 

} 

74 

11 


1,760 

n 

IS 

101 

9 


2,400 

2 

f 

132 

7 


3,140 

2f 

f 

167 

6 


3,970 


A 

207 

5 


4,900 

n 

i 

250 

4 


5,900 

3 

1 

297 

3 

6 

7,000 

3} 

1ft 

349 

2 

10 

8,200 

3} 

H 

405 

2 

4 

9,600 

3} 

H 

465 

2 

1 

11,000 

4 

1ft 

529 

1 

10 

12,500 

4} 

it 

597 

1 

8 

14,000 

4} 

ift 

669 

1 

5 

15,800 

41 

i} 

746 

1 

4 

17,600 

5 

if 

826 

1 

2 

19,500 

5} 

H 

1000 

1 


23,700 

6 

H • 

1190 


10 

28,000 

6} 

2 

1291 


9} 

33,000 

6} 

2} 

1397 


8} 

38,000 

7 

21 

1620 


7 

44,000 

7} 

2i 

1860 


6} 

50,000 

8 

2 ft 

2116 


5} 

60,000 

8} 

21 

2388 


5 

63,000 

9 

2} 

2673 


4} 

67,700 

9} 

3 

2983' 


4 

70,000 

10 

3ft 

3306 


38 

78,000 





























STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 349 
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

Ultimate resistance to tension, in pounds per square inch, 

METALS AND ALLOYS. 

Aluminum bronze: Average. 

10 per cent A1 and 90 per cent copper. 85 000 

U “ ““98*“ “ . 28,000 

Brass, cast.,. 18,000 

Brass wire. 49,000 

Bronze or gun metal. 36,000 

Copper, cast. 19,000 

Copper, sheet. 30,000 

Copper, bolts. 36,000 

Copper wire (unannealed). 60,000 

Iron, cast, 13,400 to 29,000. 16,500 

Iron wire, black or annealed. 56,000 

Iron wire, bright, hard drawn. 78,400 

Lead, sheet. 3,300 

Steel. 45,000 to 120,000 

Steel aluminum, 2* per cent aluminum. 70,000 

Steel copper, 35 per cent copper. 60,000 

Steel nickel, 3* per cent nickel. 86,000 

Steel cast, wire Bessemer. . . ... 2,896,000 

Steel cast, wire high carbon. 179,200 

Steel cast, wire mild O. H. 134,000 

The modulus of elasticity of steel from recent tests is from 
27,000,000 to 31,000,000. Average, 29,000,000. 

Tin, cast. 4,600 

Zinc. 7,000 to 8,000 

STONE, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. 

Brick and cement. 280 to 300 

Glass. 2,560 

Slate. 2,400 to 4,600 

Mortar, ordinary lime. 10 to 20 

ULTIMATE RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 

Metals. 

Brass, cast. 10,300 

Iron, “ . 85,000 to 125,000 

Steel. 9tt v • f ,,,,,, t M . 45,000 to 120,000 
































350 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 

6TONE, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL,. 


Average. 

Brick, weak. 550 to 800 

“ strong. 1,100 

“ fire. 1,700 

Brickwork, ordinary, in cement. 300 to 600 

best.. . . 1,000 

Glass. 30,000 

Granite. 5,000 to 18,000 

Limestone. 4,000 to 16,000 

Marble. 4,000 to 18,000 

Sandstone, ordinary. 2,500 to 10,000 


ULTIMATE RESISTANCE TO SHEARING. 

Metals. 


Iron, cast... 25,000 

Steel.,.,. 50,000 


MODULI OF ELASTICITY. 

Metals. 


Iron (cast). 12,000,000 

Iron (wrought shapes). 27,000,000 

Iron (rerolled bars). 26,000,000 

Steel (casting). 30,000,000 

Steel (structural). 29,000,000 


COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF PORTLAND-CEMENT MORTAR 


IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. 



Age in 


Neat. 

1 Cement, 

1 Cement. 

] Cement, 

1 Cement, 
4 Sand. 

Air. 

Water. 

Air. 

1 Sand. 

2 Sand. 

3 Sand. 

7 

1 

G 


4970 

6260 

2850 

2880 

1370 

1440 


473 

557 

30 



6140 

3400 

1490 


656 

1 

29 


8870 

4680 

2750 


950 

92 

1 

91 


6080 

9560 

3410 



.... 

1 

91 

2 


7570 




1 

90 

2 



4990 



93 

100 

101 

1 

90 

4 



2635 

isio 

3140 

i030 

1 

95 

4 





i.970 

1 

70 




.... 

2570 






















































STRENGTH, ETC , OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 351 


WORKING STRENGTH OF VARIOUS BUILDING 
MATERIALS * 

Compression (Direct). 

STEEL AND IRON. 

The safe carrying capacity of various building materials 
(except in case of columns) are as follows; the strength given 
being the working strength in pounds per square inch of section. 


Rolled steel. 


. 16,000 

Cast steel. . ,. 

. 

. 16,000 

Wrought iron. . .. 


. 12,000 

Cast iron (in short blocks). 


. 16,000 

Steel ribs and rivets (bearing). 


. 20,000 

Wrought-iron pins and rivets (bearing),. 


. 15,000 

TIMBER. 

tVith 

Across 


Grain 

Grain 

Oak. 

900 

800 

Yellow pine. 

1000 

600 

White pine. 

800 

400 

Spruce. 

800 

400 

Locust.. .. 

1200 

1000 

Chestnut.. 

500 

1000 

Hemlock. 

500 

500 


CONCRETE. 

Concrete (Portland) cement, 1; sand, 2; stone, 4. 230 

Concrete (Portland) cement, 1; sand, 2; stone, 5. 208 


Concrete (Rosendale), or equal, cement, 1; sand, 2; stone, 4-125 
Concrete (Rosendale, or equal) , cement, 1; sand, 2; stone, 5-111 
STONEWORK 

Rubble stonework in Portland cement-mortar. 140 

Rubble stonework in Rosendale cement-mortar. Ill 

Rubble stonework in lime- and cement-mortar. 97 

Rubble stonework in lime-mortar . 70 


BRICKWORK. 


Brickwork in Portland cement-mortar; cement, 1; sand, 3 
Brickwork in Rosendale, or equal, cement-mortar, cement, 

1; sand 3... 

Brickwork in lime- and cement-mortar; cement, 1; lime, 1; 

sand, .. 

Brickwork in lime-mortar; lime, 1; sand, 4. . 


250 

208 

160 

111 


* The stresses given in these tables are 
National Board of Fire Underwriters, 


those recommended by the 



























352 STRENGTH, ETC., OU VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


GRANITES, STONE, ETC. 

Granites (according to test). 1000 to 2400 

Gneiss stone. 

Limestones (according to test).. • • 700 to 2300 

Marbles (according to test). . 600 to 1200 

Sandstones (according to test). 4 00 to 16 00 

Bluestone... ^00 

Brick (hard-burned, flatwise). 

Slate.. 1000 

Safe Extreme Fibre Stress (Bending) of Various Materials 
in Pounds per Square Inch of Section. 

Rolled-steel beams. . .. 16,000 

Rolled-steel pins, rivets, and bolts. 20,000 

Riveted-steel beams (net flange section). 14,000 

Rolled wrought-iron beams. 12,000 

Rolled wrought-iron pins, rivets, and bolts. 15,000 

Riveted wrought-iron beams (net flange section). 12,000 

Cast-iron compression side. 16,000 

Cast-iron tension side. 3,000 

Yellow pine. 1,200 

White pine. 800 

Spruce. .. 800 

Oak. 1,000 

Locust. 1,200 

Hemlock. 600 

Chestnut. 800 

Granite. 180 

Gneiss. 150 

Limestone. . .... — 150 

Slate. 400 

Marble. .. 120 

Sandstone. 100 

Bluestone. 30C 

Concrete (Portland) cement, 1; sand, 2; stone, 4. 

Concrete (Portland) cement, 1; sand, 2; stone, 5. 

Concrete (Rosendale or equal) cement, 1; sand, 2; stone, 4 16 

Concrete (Rosendale of*equal) cement, 1; sand, 2; stone, 5 

Brick (hard-burned)..'. 50 

Brickwork (in cement)... 




































STRENGTH, ETC , <?F VARIOUS MATERIALS. 353 

Tensile Working Strength of Various Materials In 
Pounds per Square Inch of Section. 


Rolled steel. 16,000 

Cast steel. 16,000 

Wrought iron. 12,000 

Cast iron. 3 000 

Yellow pine. 1 200 

White pine. 800 

Spruce. 800 

Oak. 1,000 

Hemlock. 600 


Shear Working Strength of Various Materials In 
Pounds per Square Inch of Section. 


Steel web-plates. 



Steel shop-rivets and pins. 



Steel field-rivets. 



Steel field-bolts. 



Wrought-iron web-plates. 


. 6,000 

Wrought-iron shop-rivets and pins.. . . 


. 7,500 

Wrought-iron field-rivets. 


. 6,000 

Wrought-iron field-bolts. 


. 5,500 

Cast iron. 




With 

Across 


Fibre. 

Fibre. 

Yellow pine. 

... 70 

500 

White pine. 

... 40 

250 

Spruce. 


320 

Oak. 


600 

Locust. 

... 100 

720 

Hemlock. 

... 40 

275' 

Chestnut. 

... 40 

150 


Working Strength of Masonry. 

The safe load for brickwork is 

Eight tons per superficial foot when lime-mortar is used. 
Eleven and one half tons per superficial foot when lime- and 
cement-mortar, mixed, are used. 

Fifteen tpns per superficial foot when cement-mortar is used. 



























354 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


RUBBLE stonework. 

The safe load for rubble stonework is 

Ten tons per superficial foot when Portland cement is used. 
Eight tons per superficial foot when natural cement is used. 
Seven tons per superficial foot when lime- and cement- 
mortar, mixed, are used. 

Five tons per superficial foot when lime-mortar is used. 

CONCRETE. 

The safe load for concrete is 1 

Fifteen tons per superficial foot when Portland cement is used. 
Eight tons per superficial foot when natural cement is used. 
The above strength is for concrete, mixed, 1-3-5. 

WORKING STRENGTH OF COLUMNS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE 
INCH OF SECTION. 


Recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 


When the Length Divided by Least 
Radius of Gyration equals 

Working Stress per Square Inch of 
Section. 

Cast Iron. 

Steel. 

Wrought 

Iron. 

120. 


8,240 

8,820 

9,400 

9,980 

10,560 

11,104 

11,720 

12,300 

12,880 

13,460 

14,040 

14,620 

4.400 

5.200 
6,000 
6,800 
7,600 

8.400 

9.200 
10,000 
10,800 
11,600 
12,400 
13,200 

IK). . 


100. 


90. 


80. 


70.. 

9,200 
9,500 
. 9,800 
10.100 
10,400 
10.700 
11,000 

60, . 

50. . . 

40. .. 

30. .. 

20. 

10. 



And in like proportion for intermediate ratios. 


When the Length Divided by the 
Least Diameter equals 

Working Stress per Square Inch of 
Section. 

Long-leaf 

Yellow 

Pine. 

White Pine, 
Norway 
Pine, 
Spruce. 

Oak. 

30. .. 

460 

550 

640 


9Q0 

25. . 

OuU 

425 

*nn 

ou\J 

475 



15. . .. 

730 

OUU 

575 

OUU 

645 

12..... .. 

784 

820 

620 

696 

io. . . 


79ft 



uou 

4 t>U 


4 And m like proportion for intermediate ratios. Five-eighth the values 
i w ki fce P ine shall also apply to chestnut and hemlock posts. 

.tor locust posts use one and one-half the value given for white pine. 














































STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 355 

' - ■ v - v - y\ > k v- : 'n 

WORKING STRENGTH (COMPRESSION) OF MASONRY AS AL¬ 
LOWED BY THE BUILDING CODES OF VARIOUS CITIES. 


Material. 


Working Stress in Pounds per Square 
Inch of Section. 


Rubble stonework in Portland- 

cement mortar. 

Rubble stonework in Rosendale 

or equal cement mortar. 

Rubble stonework in lime and 

cement mortar . .. .. 

Rubble stonework in lime mortar. 
Rubble stonework, cdursed, well 

bonded in lime mortar. 

Rubble stonework, coursed, well 
bonded in lime and cement 

mortar. 

Rubble stonework, coursed, well 
bonded in Rosendale or equal 

cement mortar. 

Rubble stonework, coursed, well 
bonded in Portland-cement 

mortar. ; . 

Stone ashlar or blocks, with full 

beds in lime mortar. . .. 

Stone ashlar or blocks, with full 
beds in lime and cement mor¬ 
tar... 

Stone ashlar or blocks, with full 
beds in Rosendale or equal 

cement mortar. ....... . 

Stone ashlar or blocks, with full 
beds in Portland-cement mor¬ 
tar..... 

Dimension stones in cement mor 

tar. . 

Dimension stones, dressed beds, 

in cement mortar. . .« . .. 

Granites (according to test). .... 

G reenwich stone.. 

Gneiss (New York City). ....... 

Limestone (according to test). . . 

Marble (according to test). 

Sandstone (according'to test). . . , 

Bluestone (North River). 

Slate. 

Brickwork in Portland-cement 
mortar: cement, 1; sand, 3. . . 
Brickwork in Rosendale cement or 
equal mortar: cement, 1; 

sand, 3..... ; . 

Brickwork in lime and cement 
mortar: cement, 1; lime, 1; 

sand, 6... • • • 

Brickwork in lime mortar: lime, 

1; sand, 4. , . ; .. 

Brick, common kiln run, in lime 

mortar. ; . .••••••• 

Brick, common kiln run, m lime 
and cement mortar. 


New York, 
1902. 


140 

111 

97 

70 


Chicago, 

1905. 


Philadel¬ 

phia, 

1902. 


1000-2400 

1200 

1300 

700-2300 
600-1200 
400-1600 
2000 
1000 

250 


208 

160 

111 


139 

173* 


173* 


125 


90 


139 

139 

111 

69* 


208 

208 

167 

111 


Cleve¬ 

land, 

1904. 


139 

97* 

69* 

55* 

83* 

97* 

125 

152* 

125 

166§ 

208* 

288 


83* 

111 
















































356 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS 

WORKING STRENGTH (COMPRESSION) OF MASONRY— Continued. 


Working Stress in Pounds per Square 
Inch of Section. 


Material. 

New York, 
1902. 

Chicago, 

1905. 

Philadel¬ 

phia, 

1902. 

Cleve¬ 

land, 

1904. 

Brick, common kiln run, in Rosen¬ 
dale or equal cement mortar.. . 




139 

Brick, common kiln run, in Port- 
land-cement mortar. 




180^ 

111 

139 

Brick, common selected hard, in 
lime mortar... 




Brick, common selected hard, in 
lime and cement mortar. 




Brick, common selected hard, in 
Rosendale or equal cement 
mortar. 


* 


166§ 

202 

Brick, common selected hard, in 
Portland-cement mortar. 




Brick, hard, pressed, hydraulic, or 
vitrified shale or paving, in 
lime mortar.. . . 




139 

Brick, hard, pressed, hydraulic, or 
vitrified shale or paving, in 
lime and cement mortar. 




166 § 

194£ 

250 

Brick, hard, pressed, hydraulic, or 
vitrified shale or paving, in 
Rosendale or equal cement 
mortar.. 




Brick, hard, pressed, hydraulic, or 
vitrified shale or paving, in 
Portland--cement mortar. 









Note .—All brick acceptable under the New York Building Code must 
be good, hard, well-burned brick. 


STRENGTH OF BRICK PIERS. 

The late F. E. Ividder made some tests of brick piers laid up 
with various mortars, which at the age of about five months 
gave the following ultimate strength per square inch of section 


of the pier before failure: 

Lime mortar, 3 parts; Portland cement, 1 part. 3020 Iba. 

Lime mortar, 3 parts; Newark and Rosendale cements, 

1 part. 2552 “ • 

Portland cement, 1 part; sand, 2 parts... 2500 “ 

Newark and Rosendale cements, 1 part; sand, 2 parts. 2135 “ 

Lime mortar, 3 parts; Roman cement, 1 part. 2030 “ 

Roman cement, 1 part; sand, 2 parts. 1927 “ 

Lime mortar. 1562 (t 

The piers began to fail by cracking longitudinally at about 
one-half the ultimate strength. 





























STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 357 


WEIGHT OF VARIOUS MATERIALS AS COMPARED WITH 
WATER WEIGHING 62.5 LBS. 


Names of Substances. 

Specific 

Gravity. 

», • i cast. 

2.60 

Aluminum j hammered 
Amber. 

2 75 
1.08 

Anthracite . 

1.40-1.70 

Asphaltum. - . . . 

1 10-1.20 


8.40-8.70 

Brass -j roUed . 

8.57 

Brick, common, hard. .. 
Cement, ground, loose. . 
Charcoal. 

1.53-2 30 
1.85 
0.44 

Cherry, dry. 

0.76-0.84 

Clay, dry. 

1.80-2.60 

Coal, bituminous. ..... 
Coke, loo;e . 

1.20-1.50 

0.55 

Concrete. . .. 

2.47 


8.79 

C °PP er ) rolled . 

8.78-9.00 

Diamond . 

3.52 

Earth, humus . 

1.30-1.80 

Glass, common window. 
Gneiss, common. 

2.64 

2.40-2.70 

1 cast, pure, or 24 
Golds carat . 

19.28 

/ pure, hammered. 
Granite . 

19 33 
2.50-3.00 

Gypsum, cast, dry . 

0.97 

Hornblende . 

3.00 

Ice . 

0 88-0.92 


7.10-7.50 

I rou j wrought. . . 

7.79 

Ivory . 

1.82 

Lead ... 

11.37 

Lime . 

2.30-3.20 

Lime, slaked . 

1.30-1.40 

Limestones . 

2.46-2.84 

Magnesium. 

1.74 



Names of Substances. 

Specific 

Gravity. 

Mahogany. 

0.56-1.09 

Maple, dry. 

0 70 

Marble. 

2 52-2 85 

Masonry, stone, dry. .. . 

“ brick, “ ... 

Mercury at 32° Fahr.. .. 
Mica. 

2 00-2.55 
1.50-1.60 
13.596 
2 80 

Nickel. 

8 8 

Oak, dry. . .... 

0.69-1.03 

Petroleum at 59° Fahr.. 
Pine. 

0.80 
0 35-0 60 


21.15 

u j hammered. . 
Quartz. 

21.3-21.5 
2.5-2 80 

Saltpetre, Chili. 

2.26 

Kali. . 

1.95-2 08 

Sand, fine, dry. 

1.40-1 65 

“ wet...”. 

1.90-2.05 

‘ ‘ coarse. 

1.40-1.50 

Sandstone. 

2 20-2.50 


10.48 

Sllver l hammered. 

10 62 

Slate. . 

2.60-2 70 

Snow, freshly fallen.... 
Steel. 

0.19 
7.26-7 86 

Sulphur. 

1.93-2.07 

Sodium. 

0.978 

\ cast,. 

7.20 

Tin i rolled... 

7.30 

Water, pure rain or dis¬ 
tilled, at 39° F. 

1 00 

W ater. sea. 

1.03 

Walnut,, drv. 

0.60-0 81 

Wax. 

0.95-0.98 


6 90 

Zlnc | rolled. 

7.20 


WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCES. 


Average 

Names of Si’bstances. Weight, 

Pounds. 

Aluminum. 162 

Anthracite, solid, of Pennsylvania. .. 93 

“ broken, loose.. 54 

“ “ moderately shaken. 58 

heaped bushel, loose. (£0) 

Ash, American, white, dry. .. 38 

Asphaltum... 87 
















































































358 STRENGTH, ETC!, OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 

WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCES— (Continued). 


Average 

Names of Substances. Weight, 

Pounds. 

Brass (copper and zinc), cast. 504 

“ rolled. 524 

Brick, best pressed. 150 

“ common, hard. 125 

“ soft, inferior. 100 

Brickwork, pressed brick. 140 

i “ ordinary. 112 

Cement, hydraulic, ground, loose, American Rosendale. . 56 

“ “ “ “ “ Louisville.. 50 

“ « " “ English, Portland. 90 

Cherry, dry.. 42 

Chestnut, dry. 41 

Clay, potters’ dry. 119 

u in lump, loose. 63 

Coal, bituminous, solid. 84 

“ “ broken, loose. 49 

“ iJ heaped bushel, loose. (74) 

Coke, loose, of good coal. 26.3 

“ " heaped bushel.-. (40) 

Copper, cast. 542 

rolled. 548 

Earth, common loam, dry, loose. 76 

“ u “ “ moderately rammed. 95 

“ as a soft, flowing mud. 108 

Ebony, dry. 76 

Elm, dry. 35 

Flint. 162 

Glass, common window. .. 157 

Gneiss, common. 168 

Gold, cast, pure, or 24 carat. 1204 

“ pure, hammered. 1217 

Grain, at 60 lbs. per bushel. 48 

Granite.?.. 170 

Gravel, about the same as sand, which see. 

Gypsum (plaster of Paris). 142 

Hemlock, dry. 25 

Hickory, dry. 53 

Hornblende, black. 203 

Ice. 58.7 






































STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 359 


WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCES— {Continued). 

Average 

Names of Substances. Weight, 

Pounds. 

Iron, cast. 450 

‘ ‘ wrought, purest. . .. 485 

“ “ average. 4S0 

Ivory. 114 

Lead. 711 

Lignum vita, dry. 83 

Lime, quick, ground, loose, or in small lumps. .. 53 

‘ ‘ thoroughly shaken.. 75 

“ “ “ per struck bushel.*. 66 

Limestones and marbles. 168 

lt loose, in irregular fragments. 96 

Magnesium .. 109 

Mahogany, Spanish, dry. 53 

Honduras, dry. 35 

Maple, dry. 45 

Marbles, see Limestones. 

Masonry, of granite or limestone, well dressed. 165 

“ “ mortar rubble.. 154 

“ dry “ (well scabbled). 138 

1 ( sandstone, well dressed. 144 

Mercury, at 32° Fahrenheit. 849 

Mica. . . 183 

Mortar, hardened. 103 

Mud, dry, close..80 to 110 

Mud, wet, fluid, maximum. 120 

Oak, live, dry. 59 

Oak, white, dry. 50 

1 '* other kinds. 32 to 45 

Petroleum.. 55 

Pine, white, dry. 25 

tf yellow, Northern. 34 

“ Southern. 45 

Platinum. 1342 

Quartz, common, pure... 165 

Rosin. 69 

Salt coarse, Syracuse, N. Y. 45 

u Liverpool, fine, for table use. . . . 49 

Sand, of pure quartz, dry, loose..90 to 106 

“ well shaken... 99 to 117 








































360 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCES— (Continued). 

Average 

Names of Substances. Weight, 

Pounds. 

Sand, perfectly wet. .... 120 to 140 

Sandstones, fit for building..,. 151 

Shales, red or black. . 162 

Silver.«.. 655 

Slate.«. 175 

Snow, freshly fallen. 5 to 12 

44 moistened and compacted by rain. 15 to 50 

Spruce, dry... 25 

Steel. . t .-.. 490 

Sulphur. 125 

Sycamore, dry. 37 

Tar.1. 62 

Tin, cast.. 459 

Turf or peat, dry, unpressed. . ... 20 to 30 

Walnut, black, dry... 38 

Water, pure rain or distilled, at C0° Fahrenheit. 62§ 

44 sea... 64 

Wax, bees. 60.5 

Zinc or spelter. 437.5 

Green timbers usually weigh from one-fifth to one-half more 

than dry 


WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS. 


Pounds. 

1 barrel of lime.. 200 to 230 

1 44 44 cement (hydraulic or Rosendale).300 

1 44 4 4 4 4 (Portland). 400 

1 44 44 44 (Scotch, Roman).350 

1 44 44 fire-clay (American).300 

1 44 44 4 4 (English)...350 

1 4 4 4 4 brick-dust. 350 

1 4 4 4 4 marble-dust. 350 

1 4 ‘ 44 plaster, California. 260 

1 4 4 4 4 4 ‘ Wotherspoon (Eastern). 275 

1 4 4 4 * 4 4 (ground gypsum or land) .. 320 

Fire-brick 6£ to 7 pounds each. 


































STRENGTH, ETC , OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 361 


APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF VARIOUS ROOF COVERINGS. 


Weight in Pounds 


Material. per Square of 

Roof, 

Yellow pine (Northern) sheathing 1 inch thick. 300 

“ (Southern). 400 

Spruce. 200 

Chestnut or maple. 400 

Ash or oak. 500 

Shingles, pine. 200 

Slate 1 inch thick. 900 

Sheet iron ^ inch thick. 300 

“ “ TS inch “ and laths. 500 

Iron, corrugated.. >.. 100 to 375 

“ galvanized, flat. 100 to 350 

Tin. 70 to 125 

Felt and asphalt. 100 

“ “ gravel..... * .800 to 1000 

Skylights, glass, ^ inch to J inch thick. 250 to 700 

Sheet lead. 500 to 800 

Copper...^.. 80 to 125 

Zinc. 100 to 200 

Tiles, flat. 1500 to 2000 

* ‘ “ with mortar. 2000 to 3000 

“ pan. 1000 


ANGLES OF ROOFS AS COMMONLY USED. 


Propor¬ 
tion of 
Rise to 
Span. 

Angle. 

Length of 
Rafter to 
Rise. 

Deg. 

Min. 

* 

45 


1.4142 


33 

4i 

1.8028 

1 




2VS 

30 

• ' 

2.0000 


Propor¬ 
tion of 
Rise to 
Span. 

Angle. 

Length of 
Rafter to 
Rise. 

Deg. 

Min. 


2G 

34 

2.2361 

h 

21 

48 

2.6926 

i 

18 

26 

3.1623 







































362 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF CONCRETE MATERIALS. 

Sand weighs from SO to 100 pounds per cubic foot, dry and 
lccre, and from 90 to 115 pounds, dry and well shaken. 

Gravel weighs from 100 to 120 pounds per cubic foot loose, 
and about 20 pounds more when well rammed. 

Crushed limestone weighs about 90 pounds per cubic foot, 
varying somewhat either way with the size and the proportion 
of fine dust. 

Copper slag, which has been used successfully where weight 
is wanted in concrete, weighs 120 to 125 pounds per cubic foot 

Quicklime weighs 64 pounds per cubic foot. 

Portland cement, loose, weighs 70 to 90 pounds per cubic 
foot; packed, about 110 pounds per cubic foot. 


ESTIMATED WEIGHTS OF LUMBER. 
Per Thousaxd Feet. 


Black ash. . 
White ash. . 

Beech. 

Basswood. - 
Birch. 
Butternut. . 

Cherry. 

Chestnut.. . 
Cypress. . . 
Cottonwood 
Rock elm. .. 
Soft elm. .. . 

Gum. 

Hickory. . , 
Mahogany.. 

Manle. 

Oak. 

Poplar. 

Sycamore.. . 
Walaut. . . 
Yellow pine. 


Dry, 

Pounds. 

Green, 

Pounds. 

3250 

4500 

3500 

4500 

4000 

6000 

2400 

4000 

4000 

5500 

2500 

4000 

3irf)0 

5000 

2SOO 

5000 

3000 

5000 

2S00 

4500 

4000 

5500 

3000 

4500 

3300 

5500 

4500 

6000 

3500 

4500 

4000 

5500 

4000 

5500 

2800 

3S00 

3000 

4750 

3S00 

4800 

3200 

4300 


WEIGHTS OF PACIFIC-COAST LUMBER. 


Pounds per 
Thousand Feet. 


Oregon fir, 1 inch, rough. 2200 

Washington red cedar, 1 inch, rough. 2300 

Washington red cedar, 1 inch, dressed . . 2000 

California sugar pine, 1 inch, rough.. 2200 

California redwood, 1 to 2 inch, rough. 2500 

California "redwood, 1 to 2 inch. S IS. 2200 

California redwood, 1 to 2 inch, S 2 S . 2000 

Cedar shingles, *A*. 200 





































STRENGTH. ETC.. OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 363 

CARRYING POWER OF PILE3. 

The foil owing table and formula taken from Engineering Xeies 
has been used by a number of engineers and has been pronounced 
very reliable. The table h for spruce piles and average penetra¬ 
tion during last five blows of a 120fbpound hammer dropping 
15 feet. 


BEARING VALUE OF PILES. 


Narore of SotL 

Length 
a#PEe 
in Feet. , 

' Average 
i Diam- 
eterin 
i laches. 

Peaetra- 
. tioet in : 
Inches, i 

■ 

1 

Loadia 

Ton?. 

Sik... 

40 

10 

6 i 

2.75 

Mad. .. 

30 

8 

2 

6 

Soft earth with booties and fee. 

30 

8 

1.5 | 

7.2 

Moderately firm earth or clay with 1 
bAiller- and ke*... . 

30 

8 

1 

9 

Soft earth or clay- .. 

30 

10 

1 

9 

QmeferKl.*._ 

Firm earth. ... — _ _ 

30 

8 

.5 

12 

30 

8 

.5 

12 

Ji-m earth into rand or gravel .... 

20 

8 

25 

14 

Fi-m earth to rock.... . . 

20 

8 

0 

18 

Sand. 

20 

8 

0 

15 

Gravel.. 

15 

8 

0 

IS 


The formula is: 


Safe load in pounds = 


2TT/7 
5 — 1 ' 


in which TT equals weight of the hammer in pounds. H its 
fall in feet, 5 average penetration in inches during last five 

blows. 


CARRYING POWER OF SOILS, ETC. 


Name of Soil. etc. 


Carrying Power 
per Square Foot. 


Rock, hard, on native bed 

Ledge rock.. 

Hard-pan. 

Gravel. 

. Clean sand. 

Dry clay. 

Wet clay. 

Loam. 


250 tons 
36 “ 

8 « 

5 a 
4 “ 

3 “ 

2 “ 

1 ton 




























364 STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 


APPROXIMATE LOADS PER SQUARE FOOT FOR ROOFS OF 
SPANS UNDER SEVENTY-FIVE FEET, INCLUDING WEIGHT 
OF TRUSS. 

Roof covered with corrugated sheets, unboarded... 8 pounds. 

“ " “ “ “ on boards.... 11 


" “ “ slate, on laths.. 13 

Same, on boards 1 \ in. thick... 16 

Roof covered with shingles, on laths. 10 

Add to above, if plastered below rafters. ... 10 

Snow, light, weighs per cubic foot. 5 to 12 


For spans over 75 feet add 4 pounds to the above loads per 
square foot. 

It is customary to add 30 pounds per square foot to the above 
for snow and wind when separate calculations are not made. 


PRESSURE OF WIND ON ROOFS. (Unwin.) 

a = angle of surface of roof with direction of wind; 

F=force of wind in pounds per square foot; 

A = pressure normal to surface of roof = F sin a ' 003 a . 

B = pressure perpendicular to direction of wind = F cot a sin COBa 
C -- pressure parallel to direction of wind = F sin a*' 81 003 a . 


Angle of roof = a . 

5° 

10° 

20° 

30° 

40° 

Oi 

o 

o 

60° 

70° 

80° 

90° 

A=Fx. 

.125 

.2, 

.45 

.66 

.83 

.95 

1 00 

1.02 

1.01 

1.00 

B = FX . 

.122 

.24 

.42 

.57 

.64 

61 

.50 

35 

17 

00 

C = FX . 


.04 

.15 

.33 

.53 

.73 

.85 

.96 

.99 

1.00 


RELATIVE WEIGHTS OF METALS. 


Cubic inches multiplied by: 
.263 =pounds of cast iron 


.281 = 
.283 = 
.3225 = 
.3037 = 
.26 = 
.4103 = 
.2636 = 
.4908 = 


wrought iron 

steel 

copper 

brass 

zinc 

lead 

tin 

mercury 


Cylindrical inches multiplied by: 
.2065 = pounds of cast iron 


.2168 = 
.2223 = 
.2533 = 
..2385 = 
.2042 = 
.3223 = 
.207 = 
.3854 = 


wrought iron 

steel 

copper 

brass 

zinc 

lead 

tin 

mercury 






























STRENGTH, ETC., OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 365 


WEIGHT IN POUNDS OF 100 BOLTS WITH SQUARE HEADS AND 

NUTS. 

One cubic foot weighing 480 lbs. 


Diameter of Bolt, Inches. 


uengtn. 

i 

A 

f 

is 

f 

1 

f 

t 

1 

If 

4.0 

6.8 

10.6 

15.0 

23.9 

40.5 

70.0 



If 

4.4 

7.3 

11.3 

16.1 

25.1 

42.7 

73.1 



2 

4.7 

7.8 

12.0 

17.2 

26.3 

44.8 

76.2 



2f 

5.1 

8.4 

12 6 

18.2 

27.7 

47.0 

79.3 



2f 

5.4 

8.9 

13.3 

19.2 

29.0 

49.2 

82.4 

120.5 


2f 

5.8 

9.5 

14.0 

20.2 

30.4 

51.4 

85.5 

124.7 


3 

6.1 

10.0 

14.7 

21.2 

31.8 

53.5 

88.7 

128.9 

185.0 

3f 

6.8 

11.1 

16.0 

23.2 

34.7 

57.9 

95.0 

137.4 

196.0 

4 

7.5 

12.2 

17.4 

25.2 

37.5 

62.3 

101.2 

145.8 

207.0 

4f 

8.2 

13.2 

18.7 

27.2 

40.2 

66.7 

107.5 

159.2 

218.0 

5 

8.9 

14.3 

20.0 

29.1 

43.0 

71.0 

113.7 

167.7 

229.0 

5f 

9.6 

15.4 

21.4 

31.2 

45.7 

75.4 

120.0 

176.1 

240.0 

6 

10.3 

16.5 

22.8 

33.1 

48.4 

79.8 

126.2 

184.6 

251.0 

6f 

11.0 

17.6 

24.1 

35.1 

51.2 

84.1 

132.5 

193.0 

262.0 

7 

11.7 

18.6 

25.9 

37.1 

54.0 

88.5 

138.7 

201.4 

273.0 

7f 

12.4 

19.7 

27.7 

39.1 

56.7 

92.9 

145.0 

209.9 

284.0 

8 

13.1 

20.8 

29.5 

41.0 

59.4 

97.2 

151.2 

218.3 

295.0 

9 



33.1 

45.0 

64.8 

106.0 

163.7 

240.2 

317.0 

10 



36.7 

49.0 

70.3 

114.7 

176.2 

257.1 

339.0 

11 



40.4 

53.0 

75.8 

123.5 

188.7 

273.9 

360.0 

12 



44.0 

57.0 

81.3 

132.2 

201.0 

290.0 

382.0 

13 





86.7 

140.7 

213.4 

307.7 

404.0 

14 





92.2 

149.2 

225.9 

324.5 

426.0 

15 





97.7 

157.6 

238.3 

341.4 

448.0 

16 





103.1 

166.1 

250.8 

358.3 

470.0 

17 





108.6 

174.6 

263.2 

375.2 

492.0 

18 





114.1 

183.1 

275.6 

392.0 

: 514.0 

19 





119.5 

191.5 

288.1 

408.9 

536.0 

20 





125.0 

200.0 

300.5 

425.8 

558.0 

Per in. 










addi¬ 

1.4 

2.2 

3.6 

4.0 

5.5 

8.5 

12.4 

16.9 

22.0 

tional. 











APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF NUTS AND BOLT HEADS IN 

POUNDS. 


ft--- 

Diam. of Bolt in Ins. 

I 

Tg 

3 

8 

Tg 

f 

f 

f 

Weight of hexagon! 
nut and head . ... j 

0.017 

0.042 

0.057 

0.109 

0.128 

0.267 

0.43 

Weight of square 1 
nut and head . ... \ 

0.021 

0.049 

0.069 

0.120 

0.164 

0.320 

0.55 

Diam. of Bolt in Ins. 

•7 

8 

1 

H 

H 

If 

2 

2f 

Weight of hexagon 1 
nut and head . ... \ 

0.73 

1.10 

2.14 

3.78 

5.6 

8.75' 

17.0 

Weight of square 1 
nut and head .... } 

0.88 

1.31 

2.56 

4.42 

7.0 

10.5 

21.0 























































Explanation .—In the following tables to find the contents of any piece of lumber find the size of the piece in the column 
tinder size in inches, and in the column under the length of the piece of lumber in feet will be found the contents in board 
measure. 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 


o 

0 

(JH 

a 

• H 

a 

0 

i-l 


e* 

1 jOiON o 
a i-H 

oc co ^ 

• 

000 co tHCM 

rH 

OOOCD't* 

rH 

CM ©CO 

rH 


yiCNOHAl 
' *"H 

tH CO CO O CM 

*—• t-h *—• CJ CM 

CO tO r^r 05 rH 

CM CM CM CM CO 

CO p* CO CO 0 
CO CO CO CO T* 

CO T* to N- 

T* Hi TH 


in. 

3 

9 

c 

3 

Cft iO -O 

Cft co co 0 

CO CO 05 CO 

CO © © 


ocq 

«4-H —< —4 

rH to 1 ^*© rH 
rH —1 r-- —1 CM 

(MH^OCOO 
Ol CM Ol Ol CM 

rH CO to CO GO 
co ro co co co 

©05 CO tO 

TH tH t*< 

o 

GO TH 00 

H 

TH 00 ^ 

O 

GO ^ GO ^H 

GO GO 

GO 


^jiOOCOOH 

<4H rH rH 

CO to co 00 0 

rH rH rH rH CM 

rH CM tO CO 00 
CM CM CM CM CM 

O rH CO O CO 

co coco CO CO 

GO © rH CO 

CO TfH Hf TfH 

19 

. © tH rH © r—i 

a —i 

* H 

# 

<4-4 *—■ 

00 CO O tO 

rH 

CM HiONQJ 

rH rH rH rH rH 

NCIO^th 

rH 

O CM co to CO 
CM CM CM CM CM 

CO TH go CO O 

rH 

'GO Q rH co T* 

CM co co c^o co 

to 05 

© GO © rH 

CO CO CO rH 

QC 

in. 

6 

3 

6 

O co 

CO cO CO 

0 CO 

© © 

pH 

4 ^ TH CO t>- © O 

< 4-4 rH 

CM CO to CO CO 

rH *-H rH rH r-H 

Cft —< CM rH tO 
—< CM 05 CM CM 

S.COO-HCO 
CM CM CO CO CO 

tH © f''* © 

CO CO CO CO 


_! CO C'-» rHi © i 

a rH 

• H 

'C OCd tp 

to O CO 00 rH 

rH 

CO rH rfi Qi CM 

p-H 

© © 

rH 

rH 

^ tO u- coo 

<4—1 

rH CM TH © IP 

•—4 r—4 r-H —4 rH 

OOOhMt^ 
rH rH CM CM CM 

to CO CO C5 rH 
CM CM CM 05 CO 

05 tH lO © 

© CO CO CO 

CO 

tH CO Tfi 

• pH 

00 Tti CO 

TT GO tH CO 

Tp GO TT 

GO TH OO 

tH 

4 J tH lO CO CO O 

<-H4 

O CM CO tH CO 

rH —( •—H —H «—H 

N00OHCM 
rH rH CM CM CM 

r* tO CO GO Cft 
CM CM CM CM 04 

© 05 CO tH 

CO CO © CO 

• 

^ © CO co 0 

• fH 

CO CO O 

CO O Cft CO 

CO 05 co 0 

© CO © 


.jco © © t^co 

<4-4 

O r-H CM CO tO 

—4 rH rH rH rH 

COSOOOH 
rH rH rH CM CM 

CM CO tO ON 
05 Ol CM CM CM 

CO © rH-CM 

CM CO CO CO 


• co 00 O CM 

G «-h 

• rH 

Tf CO GO O 

rH 

CM ^ co 00 O 

rH 

CM O GO 

© CM tH 

rH 

tH 

4 J CO tH 10 u- CO 

'4-4 

Oft O -h CM rH 

rH rH rH rH 

tOCONXO 

rH rH rH rH rH 

rH CM CO Tf* lO 
05 05 05 05 05 

© co © © 

05 05 05 © 

CO , 

^ CO rjuo co N 

H 

GO © O rH 

rH rH 

rH CM CO rf tO 

0!>COC50 

r—i rH 05 

rH 

rH 

4 ^co th 10 co 

< 4-4 

O0 Cft Or-H CO 

rH rH rH 

-f to co r- 00 

05 O H 05 CO 
■h 05 05 05 05 

rH © f-r 00 

05 05 05 05 

N 

in. 





rH 

co th © © r>- 

<4-1 

GO 05 O —< CM 

rH rH rH 

CO TH to CO hr 

rH rH rH rH rH 

00 05 O rH CM 
rH r CM CM 05 

CO tH lO © 

CM 05 CM 05 


• O CO CO © 

a 

• pH 

TH CO CM ’"H 

rnOOOON 

rH rH 

0<0 rtiCOCd 

r-H rH p 

rH rH 

rH 

4 J CM CO rH © CO 

C 4-1 

l^. 00 Cft 0 rH 

*■*—4 r—H 

rH CM CO tH tO 

p—^ p H p—* r- < p—H 

CNCC050 

>—4 rH rr rH CM 

rH cq 05 CO 

05 CM CM 05 

o 

• © th CM 0 

a T—< 

• pH 

GO CO TH CM 

O GO O tH CM 

rH 

O GO CO t?i 

rH 

CM ©GO 

rH 

rH 

^ClCO'ttOtO 

<4-1 

CONCOOO 

© rH CM CO ^ 

r-H rH r—< r-4 r- 4 

to to O Lr GO 

rH r—H rH rH rH 

05 ©©-H 

rr CM 05 CM 


c * co 0 co CO 

© © CO 

Cft co CO © 

CO CO 05 CO 

CO © © 


• pH 

CM CO CO tH © 

CO CO h- CO 05 

O O rH CM CM 

P—^ *■—4 ^-4 

CO T* to to co 

rH rH •—4 rH rH 

coco© 

p—^ P—* P-^ r—H 


* GO tH 00 

^H GO tH 

GO Th OO Ttt 

GO Th CO 

Hi GO TH 

GO 

• pH 

,*J CM CM CO P rH 

to co CO 00 

COOiOOrH 

CM CM CO Tf* t^ 

«— •* V ■■ i r—4 P» ^ ^ < 

•COON 


•Oi^riOrH 

a t-h 

• H 

4 J i-H 05 CM CO 

<4-4 

00 ro 0 »o 

rH 

Tf to to co h- 

t'r CM 05 Tf rH 

t^OCOOCft 05 

O 1 —< GO CO O 

r—< 

O rH rH 05 CM 

rH rH -H rH rH 

© f'- CM 

CO TH tH © 

T—4 T—4 t-H rH 


•co co co 

CO CO 

co co co 

co co • 

© © 

o 

• rH 

4 ^ T-H CM CM CO CO 

<4-4 

tH tH © © © 

CO GO 00 

05 05 OO rH 
rH r-H rH 

rH CM CM CO 

t-H t-H t-H t-H 


• CO 00 rH CO 1-H 
a *-h 

• rH 

^ -H t-h CM CM CM 

U4 

rH 05 CM tP 

CO CO tH rH © 

to O CO GO rH 

to to co CO t-H 

CO rH 05 CM 

rH 

00 00 05 

IP © © 

© o © © 

w 

-a 






o 

a 

HH 

a 
• <—• 

CO^iOCON 

xxxxx 

r —4 rH rH rH rH 

IX 8 

1-X 9 
1X10 
1X11 
1X12 

1X13 

1X11 

1X15 

1X13 

1X17 

00C5OHCM 
rH rH 05 CM 05 

xxxxx 

rH t-H rH rH rH 

CO tH t<0 © 

cq oq cm cm 

xxxx 

rH tH iH tH 


0 

S3 

o3 



















































SCANTLINGS AND * PLANKS REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE. 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 367 



CD 

1 * co as wooi coo co 

o 

• rH 



jhX rH 00 00 t* 00 rf< 

• rH 


W 

NooiwcDOifNoaiciaicoi 

<4H T-(rHrH(MCNC'3COCO'^lO 


CO 

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u-. <H rH Cl Cl CO CO Ttl io O N 7 ) o 


tH 

in. 


o 

a 

♦ rH 


D* 

+£oo3cqiocoi—<Thn^.oocqoo 

M-H rH r-( CO (M (M CO CO TH TjH 


CO 

4^0*00*00*0000000 

VM^'TClClCOCOTfioONCOO 


D* 

J O CO 03 O Cq 03 CO CO 

d 

• rH 


X 

CO Tf GO ^ CO rfi 00 

• rH 


D* 

^»OX^COOOCM^NCOCO^ 
hh »—»i—4*— 4CqcqcqcqcOCOrt* 


0* 

^OSr^cOCOOOOqt^OCOiC^^ 
<*-• ’-'rHClcicOCOH’iOONOO 


O 

in. 

6 

6 

6 

6 

i 


CD 

g GO Th GO ^ GO ^ GOTTI 

• rH 


D* 

JiONOMiOSOCOiOCOLOO 

hh i—< —* *— i h CM Cq CO CO CO 


0* 

JCOCON-HOO^fOClOOOO 

<-*-4 i— 11 t— loqoqcocoTTiir^co^ 



| H ‘XlrH CO o o COO o 



• 


X 

M f—4 

• H 


T* 

d 

•H 


rH 

+ j'^OCi’H.'O^GOO(MN’HO 



Ncoeioo^cociociooTt4ci 



-*-i '—< ’— 1 •— 1 CQ (M <M CO CO 



’Hihc1C1C1COtJit14»oON 



| 4 CO lO so V>0 05 i-« <NCO 0-0 

4-1 T—1 

• r—< 



d ^ GO^ GO Tt4 GO ^ CO 

M 
• rH 



Nt^IMCOOCItHNO^LOOtH 



ANw-^cOCliOOOrfi-ono 



H-< i—1 ^-H r—( —H r—( r-H Ov| £>1 Cl CO 



^^^dCKMfOM4iOiCO 



a 



! d GO ^ GO Tt 1 CO Tf4 OO Tti 


<CD 

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o 

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rH 

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0* 

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•-t—< *—- 1 < —-< *— 1 ’-h cq cq cq co 



L_( t~ 4 rH Cl Cl Cl CO Tf4 Tf iO CD 



jOJOOOiOCOfN HQiOCO 





*0 

d 1—1 

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X 

d 

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rH 

NCOIONO^COIOOTOCIOO 


rH 

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> i f i— 11 — 1 *—h i— 11 —( ci cq co 

-in 


«-*-< ’“4 I—' ’—< Ol cq CO CO rf4 rf »0 

CD 

O 


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CD 


£*Tt< GO Tfi CO Tt 1 00 TT400 

1 



t 

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CD 


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rH 

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«-d ’— 1 1—4 T-H Cl Ol CO CO Tf4 Tt - 

.a 

00 

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G •—i 

nd 


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d 

bfl 

d 

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bJD 

d 

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rH 

JC0^O0003rHC0^C0C3(NO 

rH 

^lONOCHONOiOOiOOu:' 

CD 


1 1 t 1—4 1 —H r —( i-H 4 Cq Oq 

0) 


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-1 


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-j 


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rtf 

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JM^ONC3 0CICO»OCO»H’^ 


rH 

^Jrt4L>-C3i-('*-t4000COG0 01l^Ol 



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^ 03 Cl O ’- H CO GO i0050C»J 


CO 

d^OOOO Oq tJ4 GO TTOO 

G 1-H 


rH 

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rH 

JCl^iOOCOC3iHClCOOC3Cl 


rH 

p^OOOOCOiONrOOH-03 



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05 

d i—4 


rH 

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rH 

dco^oi>-C3i-^oq^t(oo<MioC3co 




id ^ r—1 »— 4 — 4 



<h iHih»hihC1C1(MCC 


X 

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d ^-h 



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ft 

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E^ClCO^iOONNCOOClTt4 



JCO^CDNO>OMIOOO*h^N 



id i—< ^ -h 



C4H I— 1 1—4 1—4 I—' <M cq Cl 



• CO CO 030CO 030 o 



GO TfGO Tf4 GO Tt4 OO TJ4 


CD 

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L^CIPOCO^IOOONOOCI 



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o 

a 

C1CO^ICONX030C1^0 

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o 

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a 

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Hn 4^ 4n ^ ^ Hn 

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CD 


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m 


































































































SCANTLINGS AND PLANKS REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE — {Continued). 


368 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 


O 

0> 

a 

• pH 



34 

| ^CMCO^iO 

+^t-h <M CM CO 

«HH 

CONrOOO 

CM 03 CO O 
HJ4 TfT lO N- 

CM CO 

40 03 CO co 
GO 03 t-h CM 

j—* T-H 

co co 

40 ^ CM T-H 
CM CO ^ 40 

CO 

03 00 40 CM 

40 CO OO T-H 

r-H 

CO 

03 N» CO CO 
t-h CM CO 40 

r-H ^H r-H ^H 

32 

• Tfi GO ^ 

’^ccoofo 
C4 04 CO 
*hh 

oo ^ co 

o O co co 

rr TP»r:G 

M* 00 

O CO CO O 
CO 03 O CM 

T-H T-H 

OCMOGO 
CM CO Tfi M* 

CO Tt* O CO 
40 CO 00 03 

NOO^f 
r-H CM CO ^ 

r-H t-H r-H T-H 

o 

CO 

•005 CO 

G 

(NOOLOrH 

T-H H CM CO 

CO 03 CO 

ncoQ<n 
CO rr *o o 

CO CO 

40 o cm 

NOOOth 

T-H r-H 

co co 

CMON40 
CM CO CO M* 

co 

CM O 40 O 
40 CON-03 

CO 

40 CM M* 40 

O t-h CM CO 

T-H t-H t-h t-H 

28 

•OOO'tIN 

G 

H fHNC0 05 
t-h 04 CM 

*+-< 

OOO't 

T-H 

40 o co CO 
CO ^ 40 

00 ^ 

O T-H CO 40 
NX030 

T-H 

t-h 00 40 CM 
CM CM CO ^ 

03 co O 

M< 4QN 00 

00 40 oo co 
030 t-hCM 

T-H T-H T-H 

CO 

• O ^ GO t-h 

G r-H 

O CO t-h N. 
^hth(N(N 

CO t-h -rf CM 

T-H 

cm u- co m 
COCO ^ 40 

O GO O 

T-H 

lO^OON 

CDNG0 03 

CO CO 

03 O CM C3 
t-h CM CO CO 

CO 

40 CM 40 00 
M* 40 CON- 

CO 

tmN-CMN. 

03 03 t-H t-h 

T-H T-H 

** 

a 

’""oiooio 

pTHHWlN 

*4-4 

04000 
CO CO M< iO 

oooo 

CO N- GO 03 

OO^QO 
T-H CM CO CO 

CM 00 O CM 
Tt Tt CON 

rococo 

00 03 03 0 

r-H 


W 

• CM O ^ T-H 

G T-H r-^ 

• r4 

CO T-H GO O 

T-H 

CM CO 

CO CO 

CO 

CO 


CM 

■J03 CO GO 05 
> 1 i t-H t—H CM 

NCI040 
cm co co -r 

40^ CO CM 
lOONCO 

co cm r>- co 

T-H CM CM CO 

00^40 CO 
CO ^ 40 co 

cm oo 03 

N-00 GO 03 


o 

Ji’OOOO 

G • T-H 

• r-* 

CM rr GO 

Tf 00 





OS 

oCOMOO 

s—1 t-H t-H CM 

IOC5COH 

CM CM COM* 

OC0C0 40 
40 40 CO t>» 

400400 

t-h CM CM CO 

40000 

CO M< 40 CO 

04000 
b^ b^ GO 03 


X 

• co M< 03 

G 

• H 

co co o 

CO CO 

CO O 

co 

CO 


iH 

^NHiOOO 

<-♦—< t-H t-H t-H 

NOON 

CM CM CO CO 

40 CM ON 

M- 40 co O 

CO 00 CM N- 
T-H T-H CM CM 

T-H CO 40 

CO CO M 40 

•CONNrH 

CO CON. GO 


CO 

•00 co 

G 

m oo ^ 

CO M* 






pOOMO 

«+H T—» T-H T—4 

O CO CO CO 
CM CM CM CO 

OOCOQ 
M* ^40 CO 

CM COO ^ 

T-H H CM CM 

COCMOOO 

CMCO-^Tf 

COOrtiCM 

40 CO CON- 



jCOiOOCX) 

G 

•H 

03 th CO 

T-H 

0 03 CO 

CO 03 co 

CO co 

O CO co 



.*JcOC3 CMtO 

*+H T-H T-H 

00 T-H 40 t-H 

t-h CM CM CO 

NOOO 
CO M* 40 40 

T-H 40 00 CM 

T-H T-H t-H CM 

CONIC 
CM COCO M< 

CM COON- 
40 40 CO co 



•OOiQOt^ 

M T-H 

CO »0 M* CM 

0^0 co 

T-H 

CO CO 

o 

CO 


iH 

.JiOCO^T* 

*+H T-H T-H 

NOCOO 
T-H CM CM CM 

40 O CO CM 
CO^f rfno 

O !>• t-h 
T-H t-h t-h CM 

OO 40 CM 
CM CM CO M« 

03 CM CO CO 

Ml 40 40 CO 


CO 

JiOfNOt^ 

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CO 00 th 

CO t-H Tf 03 

T-H 

03 COCO 

03 CO 

CO 03 CO 


tH 

■ J 40 00 O eO 

*4H T-H t-H 

COOtHN 
T-H T-h CM CM 

CM N. CO 00 
COCOM* M* 

03 CO CO 03 

t-H t-H t-h 

CM CO CM 03 
CM CM CO CO 

40 OO CM OO 

Tf Mr 40 40 


OS 

in. 

6 

6 

CO 






rH 

.J 40 n. on 

<4H T-H t-H 

40N040 
T-H h cm CM 

040040 
CO CO M* M* 

03 CM 40 00 

T-H t-h tH 

H TfOO 

CM CM CO CO 

CM 40 00 M« 

M* Tf Tf 40 


tH 

• n- t-h (M co 

G 

< M 

03 t-h rr t-h 

T-H 

CO T-H GO CO 

CO 03 CO 

co CO 

CO CO CO 


tH 

M< CO 03 T-4 

*H— T-H 

eo coco cm 

T-H T-H T-H CM 

bn CM CO T-H 

CM CO COM* 

00 t-h CO CO 

T-H t-h t-H 

03 CM b— CO 
T-H CM CM CO 

CO t-h M< 03 

co M* Mr Hf 


O 

• CM CO 40 

G 

CNOOO 

• T-H 

CM Tf CO 

CO CO 

CO 

CO 


tH 

,J*M< O 00 O 

M— T-H 

CM ^ CO O 

T-H -- J T-H CM 

lOoeoN 
CM CM COCO 

t> O CM 40 

r-H r-H t—— 

N0400 
T-H CM CM CO 

40 N- O 40 

CO CO M' M 

05 

c *05 000i0 

^00 40 N. 03 

*4-4 

CO CM 03 

t-h CO 40 co 

t-H t-H t-H r-r 

CO CO 03 

CM CO O CO 
CM CM CO CO 

03 CO CO 

CO 03 T-H CO 

T-H t-H 

03 

CO 

40 00 CM N. 

CO 03 co 

t-h CO COO 

CO CO CO Tf 



• M* GO 

00 GO 

m< oo 





X 

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4^00 40 ooo 

«4-< 

O t-h CO CO 

T-H tH t-h t-h 

OCOCOO 
CM CM CM CO 

CO CO © CM 

T-H T-h 

TtCOO^ 
T-H T-H cm CM 

OOOCM CO 

CM CO CO CO 

• 

03 

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43 

O 

a 

H-i 

fl 

£ 


CM CO rb 40 

xxxx 

f-4NHcsHf4Hc^ 

CM CM CM CM 

ONOOO 

XXXX 

CM CM CM CM 

CM ^ CO 00 

T-H t-h T-h t-h 

XXXX 

i-^M »h(CS i-4n 

CM CM CM CM 

CO ^ 40 CO 

XXXX 

CO CO CO CO 

3 X 7 

3 X 8 

3X10 

3X12 

3X14 

3X15 

3X16 

3X18 

is 





































































SCANTLINGS AND PLANKS REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE— {Continued). 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 


369 


c 

• 

S3 

U 

c 

o 

H-l 


36 

« 

a 

• r-H 

Soooc^^ 

00 O 1 

MH-COJ 

rH T-H r—1 r-H 

CO O rH CO 
rH rf CO GO 
CM CM CM CM 

>00100 

N050(N 

T-H t-H 

OOOO 

lOOOri'f 
rH 1 -H CM CM 

OOOO 

N O CO CO 

CM CO CO CO 


* rH CO O0 

c 

rH GO rH 

CO rH 

O CM rH 

GO rH GO 

rH 00 








CO 

JiOOCOO 

COOOOH 

rf COM 

O tO 05 CO 

rH O CO CO 

to CO rH O 


<+h^iOCC5 

rH CO tO GO 

O CM rH rr. 

N00C5tH 

rH 1^05 CM 

tO GO n H 



> r— < t— < r-H 

CM CM CM CM 

t-h 

rH r-H T-H CM 

CM CM CO CO 


• CO TT rH 

G 

CO ^H GO 

rH CO 

CO rH CO 

rH 00 rH 

CO TH 

CQ 







CO 

jJ(NCOrt<iO 

000 050 

CM CO rH CO 

CO O CO CO 

CO O CO CO 

O CO CO 0 


4h^iOOGO 

OM^HN 

05 t-h CO to 

CO 00 05 0 

CO CO GO rH 

rH CO 05 01 



rH T-H t-H r-H 

rH CM CM CM 

rH 

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to to to to 

IO to to to 



















































TIMBER. REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE. 


370 


MISCELLANEOUS 


TABLES. 


Length in Feet. 

38 

CO *t< CO T^OO 00 r* 00 ^ 0CTf« 

,H ^NOOOO^^OOOO NnOO'tacONN WCO^^»OOCNr^ 

'HiOOJWOO'tXHiO NC4O^i0a^00CC OICO^C^C^C 

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36 

ft 

d 

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34 

^ OC^CO^CO^ T^OC^OO^CO 

,H (NOO^OC(NOC^OO COCOXNNNOCO T-HCOCS3r^(NlCOCOcr)^ 

• O CO N O CO N O O lOOICON^HOOCON COiMNr-iCOLOOJTr 

4l,r-(r-Hr-iOJOlC\ICOCOCO'rp r-iT-HddOOCOCO^^ T-HdClCOCO^^^lO 

ft 

32 

• 

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,r " O X O *t O X O O CJO^HXOCOOX OCOOCOt—<T t<?OOd 

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rH r-i rH C4 CO CO CO r—ir-1 d 04 d CO CO ^ Tf< rHlMCSKMCCCO^^lO 

30 

• 

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/ 

28 

i 

^ oo ^ oo rfi oo ^co^foo^co 

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ft 

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22 

CO^COrt^OOr^ rf GO ^ CO ^ C© 

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o 

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f t , T-H t-H t— ( T-H r-H ©4 Cl <M r-H r-H r-H rH d d d ©4 r—• r—i r-H t— i d 04 d 04 CO 

18 

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fl 

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16 

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14 

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12 

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Size in 
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“SSSSSSSSS “SSSSSggS! 

xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxyx xxxxxxxxx 

OCOCOCOCOCCOCO l>-t>. !>• t>. t>* t>. t>. !>• 00 CO 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 






















































TIMBER REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE— (Continued). 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 


371 


+3 

V 

$ 


c 


40 

J ^ 00 ^ 00 ^ 

,r, OOOQOQOOO CO O o co O o co OOOOO co co o co co O 

•NOO(MCO*^OC(M CO O O CO O ‘O CO OOO^tlNO lO 00 CO rH CJ 

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38 

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t-h rHHfHrtHri rH HHHH rH rH rH CM CM CM 





















































372 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 


FIGURES TO USE ON THE SQUARE FOR RIGHT-ANGLE 
HOPPERS WITH MITRE-JOINTS. 


Slope of 
Sides of 
Hopper. 

Face Cut. 

Edge Cut. 

Slope of 
Sides of 
Hopper. 

j Face Cut. 

Edge Cut. 


* 

* 


* 

* 

2 in 12 

114 X 12 

2 X12 

11 in 12 

84X12 

84X12 

3 “ 12 

114X12 

24 X 12 

12 “ 12 

84X12 

84X12 

4 “ 12 

114X12 

34X12 

13 “ 12 

84X12 

84X12 

5 “ 12 

11 X 12 

44X12 

14 “ 12 

74X12 

94X12 

6 “ 12 

104X12 

54X12 

15 “ 12 

74X12 

94X12 

7 “ 12 

104 X 12 

6 X 12 

16 “ 12 

74X12 

94X12 

8 “ 12 

10 X12 

64X12 

17 “ 12 

7 X 12 

94X12 

9 “ 12 

10 “ 12 

94X12 

94X12 

74X12 

74X12 

IS “ 12 

64X12 

10 X 12 


* Side of square to use for cut. 


FIGURES TO USE ON THE SQUARE FOR RIGHT-ANGLE 
HOPPERS WITH BUTT-JOINTS. 


Slope of 
Sides of 
Hopper. 

Face Cut. 

Edge Cut. 

Slope of 
Sides of 
Hopper. 

Face Cut. 

Edge Cut. 

8 in 12 

* 

10 X 12 

* 

144X12 

17 in 

12 

* 

7 X 12 

* 

5 X12 

9 ‘ 

‘ 12 

94X12 

124 X 12 

18 “ 

12 

64X12 

44X12 

10 ' 

‘ 12 

94X12 

114X12 

19 “ 

12 

64X12 

4 X 12 

11 ‘ 

‘ 12 

84X12 

94X12 

20 “ 

12 

64X12 

34X12 

12 * 

‘ 12 

84X12 

84X12 

21 “ 

12 

6 X 12 

34X12 

13 ‘ 

‘ 12 

84X12 

74X12 

22 “ 

12 

54X12 

34X12 

14 ‘ 

‘ 12 

74X12 

64X12 

23 “ 

12 

54X12 

3 X 12 

15 ‘ 

‘ 12 

74X12 

64X12 

24 “ 

12 

54X12 

24 X 12 

16 ‘ 

‘ 12 

74X12 

54X12 




* Side of square to use for cut. 


To Find the Rise and Tread for Stairs. —A good rule 
for the height of the rise and width of tread of stairs is: Twice 
the rise plus the tread in inches should equal from 23 to 25 
inches, or subtract the sum of two risers from 24 inches, and 
the remainder will be the width of the tread 

The following table shows how many treads or risers there 
will be in any given distance. The dimensions of the rise or 
treads are given at the top of the table, and the number to the 
various distances are given at each side column of the table. 


























MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 


373 


TABLE O? TREADS AND RISES. 


£ 

5 — 

r - Z 

z 

f^ip. ! 
Rise, 
Ft. In. 

64-in. 
Rise, 
Ft. In. 

&i-in. 
Rise, 
Ft. In. 

04-in. 
Rise, 
Ft. In. 

7-in. 
Rise, 
|F*. In. 

1 

74-in. 
Rise, 
Ft. In. 

74-in. 
Rise, 
Ft. In. 

74-in. 
Rise. 
Ft. In. 

1 

8 

64 


64 


64 


7 

’t 

‘4 

74 


74 

2 

1 0 1 

1 04 


1 1 

1 

It 

1 

2 

1 24 

1 24 

1 24 

2 

1 6 

1 r if 


l 74 

1 

54 

1 

9 

1 94 

1 94 

1 164 

4 

2 0 

2 1 


2 2 

2 

3 

2 

4 

2 44 

2 5 


2 54 

5 

2 6 : 

2 74 



1 2 

94 

2 11 

2 111 

3 04 

3 Of 

6 

3 0 | 

3 1* 


3 3 

3 

44 

3 

6 

3 54 

3 74 


3 Si 

7 

3 6 

3 74 


3 94 

3 

114 

4 

i. 

4 1 

4 

4 24 


4 3f 

§ 

4 0 

4 2 


4 4 

4 

6 

4 

8 

4 9 

4 10 


4 11 

9 

* 

4 Si 


4 14 

5 

04 

5 

3 

5 44 

5 54 

5 54 

10 

5 0 

5 24 
" 


3 O 

5 

74 

5 10 

5 11 

5 04 

6 14 

*11 

5 5 

5 H 


5 114 

5 

24 

5 

5 

6 54 

5 74 


S 94 

12 

6 0 

6 3 


5 5 

6 

9 

f 

0 

7 1 

4 

7 3 


7 44 

13 

6 6 

6 9i 


7 04 


Of 

7 


7 54 

7 104 

7 Ilf 

14 

7 0 | 

7 34 


• * 


104 

s 


S 34 

* 5 54 

5 74 

15 

7 6 

7 9f 


S 14 

S 

34 

s 

9 

S 10* 

9 04 

9 2f 

:: 

8 0 

8 4 


S S 

9 

0 

9 

1 

9 5 

9 8 


9 10 

17 

5 6 

S 10i 


9 24 

9 

■>i 

9 11 

10 14 

10 34 

10 >4 

IS 

9 0 

9 44 


9 9 

10 

14 

10 

5 

10 54 

10 104 

11 Of 

19 

9 6 

9 10f 

10 34 

10 

54 

11 

1 

11 34 

11 54 

11 54 

20 

10 0 

10 5 

10 10 11 

3 

11 

s 

11 104 

12 1 


12 34 

21 

10 s 

10 Hi 

11 44 11 

H 

12 

3 

12 54 

12 54 

12 16* 

23 

11 0 

11 54 

11 11 

12 

47 

12 10 

1: -4 

13 34 

13 >4 

23 

11 6 

11 Ilf 

12 54 

12 

114 

13 

5 

13 7* 

13 104 

14 14 

24 

12 0 

12 € 

13 0 

13 

6 

14 

0 

14 ^ 

! 

14 6 


14 9 

42 

i2 6 j 

13 04 

13 04 

14 

04 

14 


14 104 

15 14 

15 44 

28 

13 0 

13 54 

14 1 

14 

74 

15 

2 

15 54 

15 54 

15 114 

27 

13 6 

14 Of 

14 74 

15 

- * 

15 

9 

15 04 

15 34 

15 7* 

2S 

14 0 

14 7 

15 2 

15 

9 

15 

4 

15 < 

•0 

15 11 


17 24 

29 

14 6 | 

15 14 

15 '♦ 

15 

34 

15 11 

17 24 

17 64 

17 9f 

30 

15 0 

15 74 

15 3 

15 

104 

17 

5 

17 94 

IS 14 

15 54 

5 

74-in. 

H-in 


— * - 
• 4-m. 

7^-in. 

S-in. 

54 -in. 


54-in. 

’E as r r 

Rise. 

Rise. 


Rise, 

Rise. 

Rise. 


Rise. 


Rise. 


Ft. In. 

Ft. In 

Ft. In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft 

. In. 

Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 

z - 














1 

7* 

7 J 

4 


74 


7f 


S 


54 


54 

9 

1 3 

1 3i 

1 

34 

1 

34 

1 

4 


1 44 


1 5 

3 

1 104 

1 10 * 

l H4 

1 

m 

2 

0 


i 04 


2 li 

4 

2 6 

2 04 

* 



74 


s 


2 9 


2 10 

5 

3 1* 

3 2 


3 

24 

I 

34 

i 

4 


3 54 


3 64 

6 

3 9 

3 H 

3 104 

3 

114 

4 

0 


4 14 


4 3 


4 44 

4 54 

4 

H 

4 

74 

4 

s 


4 H 


4 114 

s . 

5 0 

5 1 


5 - 

* 

5 

3 

5 

4 


5 6 


5 8 

9 

5 71 

5 54 

5 


5 

i«H 

5 

0 


6 24 


6 44 

10 

6 3' 

6 44 

6 


6 

64 

- 6 

s 


5 104 


7 1 

11 

6 104 

o Ilf 

I 

14 


24 


4 


7 64 


7 94 

12 

7 6 

7 74 

7 

5 


104 

8 

0 


5 3 


S 6 

13 

8 If 

S 34 

$ 44 

s 

64 

S 

8 


5 114 


9 24 

14 

S 9 

S 104 

9 04 

9 

*4 

9 

4 


9 4 ^ 


9 11 

** 1 

9 44 

9 a 

l 

9 54 

9 

104 

10 

0 

10 34 


10 74 
































374 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 


TABLE OF TREADS AND RISES—( Continued). 


CD 

74 

in. 

n- 

in. 

7f-in. 

74-in. 

8-in. 

8f : in. 

84-in. 

S"o © 

Rise. 

Rise, 

Ris°, 

Rise, 

Rise, 

Rise, 

Rise, 

£ H 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

16 

10 

0 

10 

2 

10 

4 

10 

6 

10 

8 

11 

0 

11 

4 

17 

10 

74 

10 

9f 

10' 

Ilf 

11 

If 

11 

4 

11 

84 

12 

04 

18 

11 

3 

11 

54 

11 

74 

11 

9f 

12 

0 

12 

44 

12 

9 

19 

11 

104 

12 

04 

12 

34 

12 

54 

12 

8 

13 

Of 

13 

54 

20 

12 

6 

12 

84 

12 

11 

13 

14 

13 

4 

13 

9 

14 

2 

21 

13 

14 

13 

44 

13 

6f 

13 

94 

14 

0 

14 

54 

14 

104 

22 

13 

9 

13 

Ilf 

14 

24 

It 

54 

14 

8 

15 

14 

15 

7 

23 

14 

44 

14 

7* 

14 

104 

15 

14 

15 

4 

15 

9f 

16 

34 

24 

15 

0 

15 

3 

15 

6 

15 

9 

16 

0 

16 

6 

17 

0 

25 

15 

74 

15 

iof 

16 

If 

16 

44 

16 

8 

17 

‘ 24 

17 

84 

26 

15 

3 

16 

64 

15 

94 

17 

Of 

17 

4 

17 

104 

18 

5* 

27 

16 

104 

17 

14 

17 

54 

17 

84 

18 

0 

18 

6f 

19 

14 

28 

17 

6 

17 

-94 

18 

1 

IS 

44 

IS 

8 

19 

3 

19 

10 

29 

18 

14' 

18 

54 

18 

8f 

19 

Of 

19 

4 

19 

114 

20 

64 

30 

18 

9 

19 

Of 

19 

44- 

19 

84 

20 

0 

20 

74 

21 

3 

u r ; 

9- 

n. 

94-in. 

10-in. 

10A 

-in. 

11- 

in. 

13-in. 

14-in. 

So © 

Rise, 

Rise. 

Rise, 

Rise, 

Rise; 

Rise, 

Rise. 


Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

1 


9 


94 


10 


104 


11 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

6 

1 

7 

1 

8 

1 

9 

1 

10 

2 

2 

2 

4 

3 

2 

3 

2 

44 

2 

6 

2 

74 

2 

9 

3 

3 

3 

6 

4 

3 

0 

3 

2 

3 

4 

3 

6 

3 

8 

4 

4 

4 

8 

5 

3 

9 

3 

114 

4 

2 

4 

44 

4 

7 

5 

5 

5 

10 

6 

4 

6 

4 

9 

5 

0 

5 

3 

5 

6 

6 

6 

7 

0 

7 

5 

3 

5 

64 

5 

10 

6 

14 

6 

5 

7 

7 

8 

2 

8 

6 

0 

6 

4 

6 

8 

7 

0 

7 

4 

8 

8 

9 

4 

9 

6 

9 

7 

14 

7 

6 

7 

104 

8 

3 

9 

9 

10 

6 

10 

7 

6 

7 

11 

8 

4 

8 

9 

9 

2 

10 

10 

11 

8 

11 

8 

3 

8 

84 

9 

2 

9 

74 

10 

1 

11 

11 

12 

10 

12 

9 

0 

9 

6 

10 

0 

10 

6 

11 

0 

13 

0 

14 

0 

13 

9 

9 

10 

34 

10 

10 

11 

44 

11 

11 

14 

1 

15 

2 

14 

10 

6 

11 

1 

11 

8 

12 

3 

12 

10 

15 

2 

16 

4 

15 

11 

3 

11 

104 

12 

6 

13 

14 

13 

9 

13, 

3 1 

I 17 

6 

16 

12 

0 

12 

8 

13 

4 

14 

0 

14 

8 

17 

4 

18 

8 

17 

12 

9 

13 

54 

14 

2 

14 

104 

15 

7 

18 

5 

19 

10 

18 

13 

6 

14 

3 

15 

0 

15 

9 

16 

6 

19 

6 

21 

0 

19 

14 

3 

15 

04 

15 

10 

16 

74 

17 

5 

20 

7 

22 

2 

20 

15 

0 

15 

10 

16 

8 

17 

6 

18 

4 

21 

8 

23 

4 

21 

15 

9 

16 

74 

17 

6 

13 

44 

19 

3 

22 

9 

24 

6 

22 

16 

6 

17 

5 

18 

4 

19 

3 

20 

2 

23 

10 

25 

8 

23 

17 

3 

18 

24 

19 

2 

20 

14 

21 

1 

24 

11 

26 

10 

24 

18 

0 

19 

0 

20 

0 

21 

0 

22 

0 

26 

0 

28- 

0 

25 

18 

9 

19 

94 

20 

10 

21 

104 

22 

11 

27 

1 

29 

2 

26 

19 

6 

20 

7 

21 

8 

22 

9 

23 

10 

28 

2 

30 

4 

27 

20 

3 

21 

44 

22 

6 

23 

74 

24 

9 

29 

3 

31 

6 

28 

21 

0 

22 

2 

23 

4 

24 

6 

23 

8 

30 

4 

32 

8 

29 

21 

9 

22 

114 

24 

2 

25 

44 

26 

7 

31 

5 

33 

10 

30 

22 

6 

23 

9 

25 

0 

26 

3' 

27 

6 

32 

6 

35 

0 
































MISCELLANEOUS TABLES, 


375 


LENGTH, DIAMETER, ETG., OF SPIKES, NAILS, 
TACKS, ETC. 

SPIKES AND NAILS. 


Standard Sted Wire Nails. 

Steel W 7 ire 
Spikes. 

Common Iron 
Nails. 

Sizes. 

Length, Inches. 

Common. 

Finishing. 

Length, Inches. 

1 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Number per Lb. 

Sizes. 

Length, Inches. 

Number per Lb, 

Diameter, 
Inches. • 

Number 
per Lb. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Number 
per Lb. 

2d 

1 

0524 

1060 

.0453 

1558 

3 

.1620 

41 

2d 

1 

800 

3d 

H 

.0588 

640 

.0508 

913 

3i 

.1819 

30 

3d 

14 

400 

4d 

n 

.0720 

380 

.0508 

761 

4 

.2043 

23 

4d 

14 

300 

5d 

H 

.0764 

275 

.0571 

500 

44 

.2294 

17 

5d 


200 

63 

2 

.0808 

210 

.0641 

350 

5 

.2576 

13 

6d 

2 

150 

7d 

2i 

. 0S58 

160 

.0641 

315 

54 

.2893 

11 

7d 

24 

120 

8d 

2+ 

.0935 

115 

.0720 

214 

6 

.2893 

10 

8d 

24 

85 

9d 

21 

. 0963 

93 

.0720 

195 

64 

.2249 

74 

9d 

24 

75 

lOd 

3 

.1082 

77 

.0808 

137 

7 

.2249 

7 

lOd 

3 

60 

12d 

31 

.1144 

60 

.0808 

127 

8 

. 3648 

5 

12d 

34 

50 

16d 

34 

.1285 

48 

.0907 

90 

9 

.3648 

44 

16d 

34 

40 

20d 

4 

.1620 

31 

.1019 

62 




20d 

4 

20 

30 d 

4\ 

. 1819 

22 






30d 

44 

16 

40d 

5 

. 2043 

17 






40d 

5 

14 

60d 

54 

.2294 

13 






50d 

54 

11 

60d 

6 

.2576 

11 

t » t r P 





60d 

6 

8 


TACKS. 


Title, 

Ounce. 

Length, 

Inches. 

Num¬ 
ber per 
Pound. 

Title, 

Ounce. 

Length, 

Inches. 

Num¬ 
ber per 
Pound. 

i 

Title, 

Ounce. 

Length, 

Inches. 

Num¬ 
ber per 
Pound. 

1 

X 

16,000 

4 

Via 

4000 

14 

Hie 

1143 ' 

14 

8 /io 

10,666 

6 

°Aq 

2666 

16 

n 

1000 

2 

*4 

8,000 

8 

A 

2000 

18 

Hie 

888 

24 

e /io 

6,400 

10 

Hie 

1600 

20 

1 

800 

3 

H 

5,333 

12 

X 

1333 

22 

nu 

727 







24 

134 

666 


NUMBER AND DIAMETER OF WOOD SCREWS. 


Num¬ 

ber. 

Diam¬ 

eter. 

1 

; Num- 
i ber. 

Diam¬ 

eter. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Diam¬ 

eter. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Diam¬ 

eter. 

0 

.056 

8 

.162 

16 

.268 

24 

.374 

1 

.069 

9 

.175 

17 

.281 

25 

.387 

2 

.082 

10 

.188 

18 

.293 

26 

.401 

3 

.096 

11 

.201 

19 

.308 

27 

.414 

4 

.109 

12 

.215 

20 • 

.321 

28 

.427 

5 

.122 

13 

.228 

21 

.334 

29 

.440 

6 

.135 

14 

.241 

22 

347 

30 

.453 

7 

.149 

15 

.2 55 

23 

.361 






































































376 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES, 


WROUGHT SPIKES. 
Number to a keg of 150 pounds. 


L’gth, 

Ins. 

Min., 

Num¬ 

ber. 

5 Ao In., 
Num¬ 
ber. 

H In., 
Num¬ 
ber. 

L’gth, 

Ins. 

Min., 
N um¬ 
ber. 

%« In., 
Num¬ 
ber. 

VZ- 

ber. 

%e In., 
Num¬ 
ber. 

H In- 

Num¬ 

ber. 

3 

2250 



7 

1161 

662 

482 

445 

306 

3* 

1890 

i208 

.... 

8 

• • • • 

635 

455 

384 

256 

4 

1650 

1135 

.... 

9 

• • • • 

573 

424 

300 

240 

44 

1464 

1064 


10 



391 

270 

222 

b 

1380 

930 

742 

11 


.... 


249 

203 

6 

1292 

868 

570 

12 

.... 

.... 

..... 

236 

180 


WEIGHT OF COPPER NAILS. 
Cut Copper Slating Nails. 
n inch, about 190 to the pound. 

\\ inch, about 135 to the pound. 

Cut Yellow Metal Slating Nails. 
n inch, about 154 to the pound. 

U inch, about 140 to the pound. 


Copper Wire Slating Nails. 


t 

inch 

No. 

12 gauge 

about 303 per 

pound. 

1 

tt 

tt 

12 

tt 

tc 

270 

it 

tc 

11 

it 

tc 

11 

tc 

tt 

196 

it 

ft 

11 

a 

tt 

10 

tt 

tt 

134 

it 

tt 

U 

tt 

tc 

12 

it 

tt 

231 

it 

a 

11 

u 

tc 

12 

tt 

tt 

210 

it 

tc 


NUMBER OF BOAT SPIKES TO 200-POUND KEG. 


[ Length, 

Inches. 

Diameter. 

Minch 

Square. 

5 /ie Inch 
Square. 

% Inch 
Square. 

7 /io Inch 
Square. 

M Inch 
Square. 

% Inch 
Square. 

M Inch 
Square. 

3 

3300 







31 

2880 


.... 





4 

2343 

i67i 



.... 



41 

2230 

1364 

i039 





5 

2030 

1308 

935 


.... 



51 

1828 

1175 

880 





6 

1624 

1115 

710 

562 

433 



7 

1420 

988 

665 

516 

400 



8 

1220 

849 

602 

453 

337 



9 

• • • • 

• • • • 

519 

409 

305 



10 

• « 0 • 

• • • • 

468 

369 

297 

182 


12 

• • • • 

• • • • 

410 

302 

241 

155 


14 


• ■ • • • 

• t • • 

0 0*9 

216 

130 

’95* 

16 

f ♦ • • 

• • • • 


* 0,9 

182 

122 

80 
























































MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 


377 


TABLE GIVING AREA OF CIRCLES (IN SQUARE FEET). 


D . 

0 in. 

1 in. 

2 in. 

3 in. 

4 in. 

5 in. 

Ft. 

1 .. 

.7854 

.922 

1.07 

1.23 

1.40 

1.58 

2. . 

3 14 

3.41 

3.69 

3.98 

4 28 

4.59 

3. . 

7 07 

7.47 

7.88 

8.30 

8.73 

9 17 

4. . 

12.58 

13.10 

13.64 

14.19 

14 75 

15 32 

5 . .. 

19.64 

20 39 

20 97 

21.65 

22 34 

23 04 

6.. 

28.27 

29.06 

29 87 

30 68 

31.50 

32.34 

7. . 

38.48 

39.41 

40 34 

41.28 

42.24 

43 20 

8. . 

50 27 

51 32 

52 37 

53.46 

54.54 

55 64 

9 . 

63.62 

64.80 

66.00 

67.20 

68.42 

69.64 

10. . 

78.54 

79.85 

81.18 

82.52 

83.86 

85.22 

11, . 

95.03 

96.48 

97.93 

99.40 

100.88 

102 37 

12. 

113.10 

114.67 

116.26 

117.86 

119.47 

121.09 


132.73 

134.44 

136.16 

137.89 

139.63 

141.38 

14. 

153.94 

155.78 

157.63 

159.49 

161.36 

163.24 

15. 

176.72 

178.68 

180.66 

182.65 

184.66 

186.67 

16. . 

201.06 

203.16 

205.27 

207.39 

209.53 

211.67 

17 . 

226.98 

229.21 

231.45 

233.71 

235.97 

238.24 

18. 

254.47 

256.83 

259.20 

261.59 

263.98 

266.39 

19 . 

283.53 

2S6.06 

288.52 

291.04 

293.56 

296.11 

20. 

314.16 

316.78 

319.42 

322.06 

324.72 

327.39 


D. 

6 in. 

7 in. 

8 in. 

9 in. 

10 in. 

11 in„ 

Ft. 

1. 

1.77 

1.97 

2.18 

2.41 

2 64 

2 89 

2. 

4 91 

5.24 

5 59 

5.94 

6.30 

6.68 

3. . 

9.62 

10.08 

10.56 

11.04 

11.54 

12.05 

4. 

15.90 

16.50 

17.10 

17.72 

18.35 

18.99 

5. . 

23.76 

24.48 

25.22 

25.97 

26.73 

27 49 

6 . 

33.18 

34.04 

34.91 

35.78 

36.67 

37.57 

7 .. 

44.18 

45 17 

46.16 

47.17 

48.19 

49.22 

8,,.. 

56 75 

57.86 

58 99 

60.13 

61.28 

62.44 

9,. 

70.88 

72 13 

73.39 

74.66 

75.94 

77 24 

10 . 

86.59 

87.97 

89.36 

90.76 

92.17 

93.60 

11. 

103.87 

105.38 

106.90 

108.43 

109.98 

111.53 

12. 

122.72 

124.36 

126 01 

127.68 

129.35 ' 

131.04 

13. 

143.14 

144.91 

146.69 

148.49 

150.29 

152.11 

14. 

165.13 

167.03 

168.95 

170.87 

172.81 

174.76 

15 . 

188.69 

190.73 

192.77 

194.83 

196.89 

198.97 

16. 

213 83 

215.99 

218.17 

220.35 

222.55 

224.76 

17 . 

240.53 

242.82 

245.13 

247.45 

249.78 

252.12 

18. 

268.80 

271.23 

273.67 

276 12 

278.58 

281.05 

19 . .. 

298.64 

301.21 

303.77 

306.36 

308 94 

311.55 

20. 

330.06 

332.75 

335.45 

338.16 

340.88 

343.62 




























































378 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 


NUMBER OF GALLONS IN ROUND CISTERNS AND TANKS. 


Diameter in Feet. 


in 

Feet. 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

6 

735 

1,060 

1,440 

1,875 

2,380 

2,925 

3,550 

4,237 

6 

881 

1,270 

1,728 

2,250 

2,855 

3,510 

4,260 

5,084 

7 

L028 

1,480 

2,016 

2,625 

3,330 

4,095 

4,970 

5,931 

8 

1,175 

1,690 

2,304 

3,000 

3,805 

4,680 

5,6S0 

6,778 

9 

1,322 

1,900 

2,592 

3,375 

4,280 

5,265 

6,390 

7.625 

10 

1,469 

2,110 

2,880 

3,750 

4,755 

5,850 

7,100 

8,472 

11 

1,616 

2,320 

3,168 

4,125 

5,250 

6,435 

7,810 

9.319 

12 

1,762 

2,530 

3,456 

4,500 

5,705 

7,020 

8,520 

10,166 

13 

1,909 

2,740 

3,744 

4,875 

6,180 

7,605 

9,230 

11,013 

14 

2,056 

2,950 

4,032 

5,250 

6,655 

8,190 

9,940 

11,860 

15 

2,203 

3,160 

4,320 

5,625 

7,130 

8,775 

10,650 

12,707 

16 

2,356 

3,370 

4,608 

6,000 

7,605 

9,360 

11,360 

13,554 

17 

2,497 

3,580 

4,896 

6,375 

8,080 

9,945 

12,070 

14,401 

18 

2,644 

3,790 

5,184 

6,750 

8,535 

10,530 

12,780 

15,248 

19 

2,791 

4,000 

5,472 

7,125 

9,010 

11,115 

13,490 

16,095 

20 

2,938 

4,210 

5,760 

7,500 

9,490 

11,700 

14,200 

16,942 


Depth 

Diameter in Feet. 

in 

Feet- 

13 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

5 

4,960 

5,765 

6,698 

7,529 

9,516 

11,750 

14,215 

16,918 

6 

5,952 

6,918 

8,038 

9,024 

11,419 

14,100 

17,059 

20,302 

7 

6,944 

8,071 

9,378 

10,52? 

13,322 

16,450 

19,902 

23,680 

8 

7,936 

9,224 

10,718 

12,032 

15,225 

18,800 

22,745 

27,070 

9 

8,928 

10,377 

12,058 

13,536 

17,128 

21,150 

25,588 

30,454 

10 

9,920 

11,530 

13,398 

15,040 

19,031 

23,500 

28,431 

33,838 

11 

10,913 

12,683 

14,738 

16,544 

20,934 

25,850 

31,274 

37,222 

12 

11,904 

13,836 

16,078 

18.048 

22,837 

28,200 

34,117 

40,606 

13 

12,896 

14,989 

17,418 

19,552 

24,740 

30,550 

36,960 

43,990 

14 

13,888 

16,142 

18,758 

21,056 

26,643 

32,900 

39,803 

47,374 

15 

14,880 

17,295 

20,098 

22,260 

28,546 

35,250 

42,646 

50,758 

16 

15,872 

18,448 

21,438 

26,064 

30,449 

37,600 

45,489 

54,142 

17 

16,864 

19.601 

22,778 

25,568 

32,352 

39,950 

48,332 

57,520 

18 

17,856 

20.754 

24,118 

27,072 

34,255 

42,300 

51,175 

60,910 

19 

18,848 

21,907 

25,458 

28,576 

36,158 

44,650 

54,018 

64,294 

20 

19,840 

23,060 

26,798 

30,080 

38,062 

47,000 

56,861 

67,678 


To find the number of gallons in a tank of unequal diameter multiply 
the inside bottom diameter in inches by the inside top diameter in inches, 
then this product by 34: point off four figures and the result will be the 
average'number of eallons to one inch in depth of the tank. 

































MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 


379 


NUMBER OF U. S. GALLONS IN RECTANGULAR TANKS. 

For One Foot in Depth. 


.S . 


Length of Tank in Feet. 


£ 

2 

2.5 

3 

3.5 

4 

4.5 

5 

5.5 

6 

6.5 

7 

2 

2 5 

3 

29.92 

37.40 

46.75 

44.88 

56.10 

52,36 

65.45 

59.84 

74.80 

67.32 

84.16 

74.81 

93.51 

82.29 

102.86 

89.77 

112.21 

97.25 

121.56 

104.73 

130.91 

157.09 

183.27 


67.32 

78.54 

89.77 

100.99 

112.21 

123.43 

134.65 

145.87 

3.5 



91.64 

104.73 

117.82 

130.91 

144.00 

157.09 

170.13 

4 




119.69 

134.65 

149.61 

164.57 

179.53 

194.49 

218.80 

209 45 

4.5 





151.48 

168.31 

185.14 

201.97 

235.63 

261.82 

288.00 

314.18 

5 






187.01 

205 71 

224.41 

246.86 

269.30 

243.11 
2:7.43 
291 74 

5 5 







226.28 

6 








6.5 

7 









316.05 

340.36 










366.54 













ja 

-tJ <n 

Length of Tank in Feet. 

£ 

7.5 

8 

8.5 

9 

9.5 

10 

10.5 

11 

11.5 

12 

2 

112.21 

119.69 

127.17 

134.65 

142.13 

149.61 

157.09 

164.57 

172 05 

179.53 

2.5 

140.26 

149.61 

158.96 

168.31 

177.66 

187.01 

196.3 

205.71 

215.06 

224.41 

3 

168.31 

179.53 

190.75 

202.97 

213.19 

224.41 

235. 3 

246.8' 

25 07 

269.30 

3.5 

196.36 

209.45 

222.54 

235.63 

248.73 

261.82 

274.JO 

288.00 

’301.09 

314.18 

4 

224.41 

239.37 

254.34 

269.30 

284.26 

299.22 

31 '.L 

329.14 

344.10 

359.06 

4.5 

252.47 

269.30 

286.13 

302.96 

319.79 

336.62 

353.45 

370.28 

387.11 

403.94 

5 

280.52 

299.22 

317.92 

336.62 

355,32 

374.03 

392.72 

41\4' 

430.13 

448.83 

5.5 

308.57 

329.14 

349.71 

370.28 

390.85 

411.43 

432.'’O 

452.57 

47°.14 

493.71 

6 

336.62 

359.06 

381.50 

403.94 

426.39 

448.83 

471.27 

49. .71 

516.15 

538.59 

6.5 

364.67 

388.98 

413.30 

437.60 

461.92 

486.23 

.10.54 

534.85 

559.16 

583.47 

7 

392 72 

418.91 

445.09 

471.27 

497.45 

52 .64 

549.81 

575.99 

602.18 

628.36 

7.5 

420.78 

448.83 

476.88 

504.93 

532.98 

5"1.04 

589.08 

617.14 

645.19 

673.24 

8 


478.75 

508.67 

538.59 

568.51 

598.44 

62^.36 

658.28 

688.20 

718.12 

8.5 



540.46 

572.25 

604.05 

635.84 

667.63 

699.42 

731.21 

763.00 

9 




605.92 

639.58 

673.25 

706.90 

740.56 

774.23 

807.89 

9.5 





675.11 

710.65 

746.17 

781.71 

817.24 

852.77 

10 






748.05 

785.45 

822.86 

860.26 

897.66 

10 5 







824.73 

864.00 

903.26 

942.56 

11 








905.14 

940.27 

987.43 

11 5 

1 9 









989.29 

1032.3 










1077.2 













Example .—To find number of gallons in a rectangular tank that ia 
7.5 feet by 10 feet, the water being 4 feet deep: Look in extreme left-hand 
column for 7 5, and opposite to this in column headed 10 read 561.04, 
which being multiplied by 4, the depth of water in the tank, gives 2244.2, 
the number of gallons required. t 


WEIGHT 

OF ROUGH GLASS 

PER 

SQUARE 

FOOT. 

Thickness, inches. 


* 

i 

i 

t i 

Weight, pounds.. 


Si 

5 

7 

8$ 1 


























































380 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 


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MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 381 

HEIGHT OF TALL BUILDINGS, TOWERS, SPIRES, ETC. 

Eiffel Tower, France. 985 feet 

Tower of Babel. 680 1 ‘ 

Metropolitan Life Insurance Building. 700 “ 

Singer Building, New York. 612 11 

Washington Monument, Washington, D. C. 555 “ 

City Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 537 “ 

Cologne Cathedral, Germany. 512 “ 

Tower of Baalbec. 500 “ 

Rouen Cathedral, France. 495 “ 

Pyramid of Cheops, Egypt. 486 il 

Antwerp Cathedral, Belgium. 476 “ 

Church of St. Nicholas, Hamburg. 473 “ 

Pyramid of Cephrenes, Egypt. 473 tc 

Strasburg Cathedral, Germany. 468 “ 

St. Martin’s, Landshut, Germany. 462 ft 

Vienna Cathedral, Austria. 449 “ 

St. Peter’s Church, Rome. 448 “ 

St. Stephen’s, Vienna. 446 ** 

Cathedral at Amiens. 422 “ 

St. Mary’s, Lubeck, Germany. 413 “ 

Salisbury Cathedral. 404 lt 

Antwerp Cathedral, 'Belgium. 402 ‘ e 

Palace of Justice, Brussels, Belgium. 400 “ 

Cremona Cathedral. 392 ‘ ‘ 

Park Row Building, New York. 392 “ 

St Peter’s, Rome. 391 “ 

Cathedral at Florence, Italy. 380 “ 

Church at Fribourg, Germany. 386 “ 

City Hall, Brussels. . .. 370 “ 

St. Paul’s, London. 365 “ 

Cathedral of St. Petersburg. 363 “ 

Times Building, New York. 363 “ 

Cathedral of Seville, Spain. 360 (e 

International Banking Company’s Building, New York. 352 * ‘ 

Cathedral of Utrecht, Holland. 356 

Pyramid of Sakkarah, Egypt. 356 “ 

Cathedral of Milan, Lombardy. 355 

Manhattan Life Insurance Building, New York. 348 “ 

Wall St. Exchange Building, N. Y. 340 “ 

Victoria’s Tower, House of Parliament, London. 340 









































382 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 

Madison Square Garden Tower, New York. 332 feet 

St. Mark’s Church, Venice, Italy.. . <. 328 

St. Paul Building, New York. 317 “ 

Land & Title Building, Philadelphia. 317 “ 

Court House, Pittsburg Pa. 319 “ 

Duomo, or Sta. Maria del Fiore, at Florence. 310 “ 

Pulitzer Building, New York. 309 “ 

American Surety Building, New York. 308 lt 

American Tract Society Building, New York. 306 “ 

Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor. 305 “ 

Masonic Temple, Chicago, Ill. 303 “ 

Lincoln Cathedral, England. 300 * 1 

“Flatiron” Building, New York. 293 “ 

Empire Building, New York. 293 “ 

Trinity Building, New York. 290 “ 

Capitol Building, Washington, D. C. 287J “ 

Trinity Church.. 286 “ 

Assinelli Tower, Bologna, Italy. 272 “ 

Pantheon, Paris. 274 “ 

Auditorium, Chicago. 270 “ 

Bank of Commerce Building, N. Y. 264 “ 

Column at Delhi, Hindoostan. 262 “ 

Porcelain Tower at Nankin, China. 262 “ 

Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris. 264 “ 

State Capitol, Hartford, Conn. 256 “ 

Fischer Building, Chicago. 235 “ 

Bunker Hill Monument, Massachusetts. 221 11 

New Netherlands Hotel,.N. Y. 220 lt 

Cathedral Notre Dame, Montreal, Canada. 220 “ 

Grace Church, New York. 216 “ 

St. John’s Church, New York. 210 “ 

St Paul’s, New York. 200 “ 

Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy. 188 “ 

Ames Building, Boston. 186 “ 

Opera House, Paris. 183 “ 

Washington Monument, Baltimore. 1/5 tl 

July Column, Paris.... 154 “ 

Nelson’s Monument, Trafalgar Square, London. 154 “ 

Trajan’s Pillar. Rome. .. 151 “ 

State, War, and Navy Building, Washington. 145 t( 

Obelisk of Luxor, Paris.... 110 











































VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


383 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS AND SHORT CUTS. 

Miscellaneous Receipts. — Test for Sewer-gas. — 
Saturate unglazed paper with a solution of 1 ounce pure lead 
acetate in half a pint of rain-water; let it partially dry, then 
expose in the room suspected of containing sewer-gas. 

The presence of gas in any considerable quantity soon darkens 
or blackens the test-paper A suspected joint of a pipe can be 
tested by wrapping with a single layer of white muslin, moist¬ 
ened with the above solution, and if gas is escaping it will darken 
the cloth. 

To Clean Copper. —Take 1 ounce of oxalic acid, 6 ounces of 
rotten stone, § ounce of gum arabic, all in powder, 1 ounce of 
sweet-oil, and sufficient water to make a paste. Apply a small 
portion and rub dry with a flannel or leather. 

Removal of Stains from Granite. —A paste of 1 ounce of 
ox-gall, 1 gill of strong solution of caustic soda, 1 \ tablespoonfuls 
of turpentine, with enough pipe-clay to make it thick, and scour 
well. 

Or, mix together l pound soft soap, 1 ounce washing-soda, and 
a piece of sulphate of soda as big as a walnut. Rub it over the 
surface proposed to clean, let it stand twenty-four hours, and 
then wash off; or, smoke and soot stains can be removed with a 
hard scrubbing-brush and fine sharp sand, to which add a little 
potash. 

Or, use strong lye, or make a hot solution of 3 pounds of 
common washing-soda dissolved in 1 gallon of water. Lay it on 
the granite with a paint-brush. 

To Clean Marble. —Mix 2 parts by weight of sal-soda, 1 
part powdered chalk or fine bolted whiting, and 1 part pow¬ 
dered pumice-stone with enough water to make a thin batter, 
and by the means of a scrubbing-brush apply it to the spots; 
then wash off with soap and water. 

Or, to remove grease spots from marble, moisten fine whiting 
or fullers’ earth with benzine, apply it in a thick layer to the spots, 
and let it remain for some time; then remove the diy paste and 
wash the spot with soap and water. 

To extract oil stains from marble, make a paste by mixing 
2 parts of fullers’ earth, 1 part soft soap, and 1 part potash with 


3S4 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


boiling water. Apply this paste to the spots and let it remain 
three or four hours. 

To Remove Paint from Window Glass. —Put sufficient 
saleratus into hot water to ma^e a strong solution, and with this 
saturate the paint which adheres to the glass. Let it remain 
until nearly dry, then rub it off with a woollen cloth. 

To Make Modelling Clay. —Knead dry clay with glycerine 
instead of water, work thoroughly with the hands, moisten work 
at intervals of two or three days, and keep covered to prevent 
evaporation of moisture. 

To Clean Paint. —When paint is washed with any strong 
alkaline solution, such as soda or strong soap, the oil of the 
paint is liable to be changed to soap and the paint is seriously 
injured. To avoid this, take some of the best whiting, and have 
ready some clean warm water and a piece of flannel, which dip 
into the water and squeeze nearly dry; then take up as much 
whiting as will adhere to it, apply it to the painted surface, 
when a little rubbing will quickly remove any dirt or grease 
stains. After this wash the part well with clean water, rubbing 
it dry with a soft chamois. Paint thus cleaned will look as well 
as when first put on, and the operation may be tried without 
fear of injury to the most delicate colors. It answers far better 
than the use of soap, and does not require more than one-half 
the time and labor. Another simple method is the following; 
Put a tablespoonful of aqua ammonia in a quart of moderately 
hot water, dip in a flannel cloth, and with this merely wipe over 
the surface of the woodwork. No rubbing is necessary. The 
first recipe is preferable, except where the paint is badly dis¬ 
colored. 

To Age or Color Copper.— Add about 1 pound of powdered 
sal ammoniac to 5 gallons of water, dissolve it thoroughly, 
and let it stand at least twenty-four hours before putting it 
on the copper. Apply it to the copper with a brush, being 
sure to cover every place; let it stand for a day and spr inkl e 
with water, using a brush to sprinkle the water on so that it 
will not run and streak the copper. After standing overnight 
the color will be as desired. The same effect can be produced 
by using vinegar and salt instead of the sal ammoniac, using 
\ pound of salt to 2 gallons of vinegar. 

To Remove Old Glass from Sash. —Take a hot iron and 
run along the surface of the putty, when it can easily be re¬ 
moved with a chisel. 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


385 


To Remove Rust Stains. —To remove rust stains from 
wood wash the disfigured parts with a solution of 2 ounces 
of oxalic acid to 1 pint of hot water. 

In fitting doors always keep the hollow side next the stop 
or rebate strip. 

When hanging transoms, where possible, if the transom is to 
be hung at the top, hang them so that when they are open the 
glass will lay on the wood and not on the putty. 

Wash-stands are usually set 2 feet 6 inches from the floor. 

The relative strength of timbers is estimated by multiplying 
the breadth by the square of the depth. 

Example. —How many times as strong is a joist 2§"X15" 
when supported on its narrow side as when supported on its 
broad side? 2§x2|=6i, 6iXl5 = 93 T V, 15X15 = 225, 225X2| = 
5625621-7-93^ = 6, or six times stronger. 

Bevel of Doors. —In fitting doors the lock-edge should be 
given a bevel of §- inch in inches, as this is the standard 
bevel given the face of locks. If the door be narrow it may 
be necessary to give it a little more bevel than this in order 
to clear the jamb as the door opens. 

Astragal of Sliding-doors. —The standard astragal-joint 
of sliding-doors has a f-inch half-round or bead, with a groove 
to receive it slightly larger to give a little play. 

Height of Chairs, etc. —The height of a chair-seat above 
the floor is IS inches. The height of a table above the floor 
is 2 feet 5 inches. 

Size of Bedsteads. —A single bed is 3 to 4 feet wide. A 
three-quarter bed is 4 to 4 feet 6 inches wide. A double bed 
is 5 feet wide. All bedsteads are from 6 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 
8 inches long. 

Size of Pianos. —Upright pianos vary in size from 4 feet 
8 inches to 5 feet 8 inches long, and from 2 feet 2 inches to 2 feet 
8 inches in depth. 

Size of Bowling-alley. —A regulation bowling-alley is 65 
feet long, 3J feet wide, ^ith an additional 10 feet of floor-space. 

Size of Billiard-tables.— Billiard-tables are 4 feet by 8 feet, 
4 feet 2 inches by 9 feet, and 5 feet by 10 feet. 

Size of Horse-stalls. —Horse-stalls should be made 4 feet 
or 5 feet or over in width by 9 feet in length. They should never 
be made between 4 and 5 feet, as the horse is liable to cast 
himself. 

Height of Horse-troughs.— Horse or cattle water-troughs 


386 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


should be made about 26 inches from floor or ground to the top 
©f the trough. 

Height of Hand-rails. —The usual height of hand-rails is 
about 2 feet 7 inches from the top of the step on line with the 
ri er of the step. 

Height of Base in Rooms. —A good rule for the height of 
base is to divide the height of the story by 10 and multiply 
this answer by §, which will give the height of the base; or 
make the base the same number of inches in height that the 
story is in feet. 

Height of Chair-rails.— Chair-rails should be about 36 
inches from the floor to top of rail. In some cases the height 
is governed by the height of the window-stools. 

Hand or Loose-pin Butts.—A loose-pin butt that will work 
on a door opening from you to the right, when standing at the 
opposite side of the partition from that which the door is hung, 
is a right-hand “butt, and a left-hand butt if it will work on a 
door opening to the left. The same rule applies to locks. 

Rope-mouldings. —Rope may be used as spiral mouldings in 
circular and curved work where wooden mouldings could not 
be employed without incurring extraordinary expense. The 
rope should be soaked for a few hours in thin starch and glue 
equal parts, thoroughly mixed together. 

When the rope is to be nailed in place wipe off all the adhesive 
matter, then secure one end in place and twist the rope until 
the strands appear more prominent than ordinarily, then nail 
in place. 

After the rope is secured in place take a pointed stick and 
draw along the creases of the rope, thus bringing the strands 
into more prominence. Such mouldings may be finished with 
wood-filler, painted and varnished. Boiled oil can be used in 
place of the mixture of starch and glue. 

Hand of Stairways. —If, in ascending stairway, the rail 
is on the right-hand side it is a right-hand stairway. If the 
rail is on the left-hand side then it is a left-hand stairway. 

Spacing Roof-lath for Slate or Shingles. —When a roof 
is sheathed with lath or strips they should be spaced the same 
distance, centre to centre, that the slate or shingles are to show 
to the weather. 

Bridging Partitions. —When bridging partitions tack a 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


387 


stud horizontally across the face of the partition and draw 
all the studs into line. Then cut in the bridging and nail solid, 
and it will keep the studs in line. Straight partitions and true 
plastering can be obtained in this way with a little care. 

Height of Wardrobe-shelves. Shelves in wardrobes should 
be set about 5 feet 10 inches from the floor, when there is to be 
a cloak-rail under the shelf; the hooks on the cloak-rail should 
be about 5 feet 6 inches from the floor. 

Setting Door-jambs. —The openings for doors should be 
framed about § inch larger than the outside measurement of 
the jambs, and in setting the jambs use shingles for wedging. 
A bunch of shingles on a job when the door-jambs are being 
set will save many an hours’ time. 

Nailing Moulding of Doors.— When nailing the moulding 
in the panels of moulded doors care should be taken not tb 
drive any nails so that they will come in the way of the bit when 
boring for the mortise of the lock. Many a bit has been spoiled 
and many an hours’ time lost by nails driven where the mortise 
foi the lock is to be cut. In some cases it is well to tack the 
piece of moulding at this point, leaving it to be nailed fast 
after the lock is cut in. 

Cement for Stopping Flaws in Wood.— Put any quantity 
of fine sawdust of the same wood your work is made with into 
an earthen pan, and pour boiling water on it; stir it well, and let 
it remain for a week or ten days, occasionally stirring it. Then 
boil it for some time, and it will be of the consistency of pulp 
or paste. Put it into a coarse cloth and squeeze all the moisture 
from it. Keep for use, and, when wanted, mix a sufficient 
quantity of thin glue to make a paste; rub it well into the 
cracks, or fill up the holes in your work with it. When quite 
hard and dry clean your work off, and, if carefully done, you 
will scarcely discern the imperfection. 

Nailing Base and Moulding at Mantels. —In making a 
return of the base and moulding at a mantel never nail the 
base or moulding fast to the mantel. The mantel should be 
left free to be taken off the hooks at any time. 

To Bend Mouldings. —To bend a moulding around a circle 
rip the moulding into strips, each strip being a member of the 
moulding, so the joints will come at the intersections of the 
members; then each strip can be bent separately. 

To Fit Doors. —In fitting doors a good rule is to make the 


388 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


space between the door and jamb just large enough so a silver 
quarter will slide around the door; this will give sufficient space 
for the paint or varnish and for the door to work easily. Always 
fit the door so that the hollow side lays against the stop or rebate. 

Driving Nails Under Water. —To drive nails under water 
take a piece of pipe long enough to set on the timber, or what¬ 
ever it is the nail is to be driven into; place it on the timber 
and drop the nail into it point first, then drop an iron rod down 
on top of the nail, and use the hammer on top of the rod to 
drive the nail. 

Soundness of Timber. —The soundness of timber may be 
ascertained by placing the ear close to one end of the timber 
'while another person strikes a succession of blows on the opposite 
end, using a hammer or mallet. If the stick is sound the blows 
of the hammer will sound clear, but if they sound dull it indicates 
an unsound place in the timber. 

Corner-blocks. —When putting up block-trim always set 
the corner-blocks so the grain will stand vertical, the end wood 
•will then not show at the side. 

Side of an Octagon. —To find the length of one side of an 
octagon when the short diameter is given multiply this diam¬ 
eter by 0.4141. 

Radius of Door- or Window-openings. —The radius of a 
segment, door, or window head should be equal to the width of 
the opening. 

To Cut a Stick Square or on an Angle of 45° without a 
Square. —Place the saw on the stick in a position to saw, and 
note the reflection of the stick on the side of the saw. If the 
reflection and the stick are in a line, then the saw is in a posi¬ 
tion to make a square cut. If the reflection and the stick are 
at right angles, then the saw is in position for a square mitre 
or angle of 45°. 

To Find the Power of a Lever.— Rule. —As the distance 
between the weight and the fulcrum is to the distance between 
the power and the fulcrum so is the power to the weight. 

To Find the Power of Pulleys or Set of Blocks.— Rule 
As one is to twice the number of movable pulleys so is the 
power to the weight. 

Size of Gutters and Down-spouts or Conductor-pipes.— 
A rule of the American Bridge Company requires the following 
sizes for gutters and conductor-pipes: 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


389 


Size of Roof. Gutter. Conductor. 

Up to 50 feet. 6 inches.4 inches every 40 feet 

50 “ 70 “.7 w 5 “ “ 40 “ 

70 “ 100 “.8 “ 5 “ “ 40 “ 

Paste for Paper to Iron. For pasting paper to iron or 
steel mix dextrine with water and boil it down until it assumes 
about the consistency of very thin glue; it will not hold on greasy 
or oily substances. 

Ink for Zinc. —An ink which can be used with a drawing-pen 
on zinc and which is acid-proof is made of 1 dram verdigris, 
1 dram sal-ammoniac powder, and \ dram lampblack, mixed 
with 10 drams of water. 

Oil for Oil-stones. —A good oil for oil-stones is made by 
mixing equal parts of sperm- and carbon-oil (coal-oil). 

Nailing in Hardwoods. — When working in hardwoods 
bore a hole in the end of the hammer-handle and fill with 
soap or beeswax. When a nail is to be driven place the 
point of it in the beeswax or soap and it will drive much 
easier. 

Penny as Applied to Nails. —The term “ penny” is derived 
from pound. It originally meant so many pounds to the thou¬ 
sand. Threepenny nails would mean three pounds to the 
thousand nails; eightpenny nails, eight pounds to the thousand 
nails, etc. 

To Mark Tools, etc. —Take 7 ounces of nitric acid and 1 
ounce of muriatic acid; mix, and shake together, then cover 
the tool where it is desired to mark with beeswax, and take a 
needle or other sharp instrument a™d scratch the name plainly 
in the beeswax; then apply the acid with a feather, filling up 
the scratch in the wax; let it remain for about five minutes, then 
wash off with water and rub with oil. 

To Adjust a Level. —Place the level against a wall or some 
solid place, and in position so that the bead in the glass is 
at the centre and mark the position of both ends of the level 
on the wall; now reverse the level; place one end to one of 
the marks made, and move the other end until the bead is in 
the centre again and mark the second position; now divide the 
space between the two marks made and place the end of 
the level to this mark, and turn the adjusting-screw of the 
level until it brings the bead to the centre, when the level 
will be true. 








3§0 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC 


Improved Marking-gauge.- —An improvement is made on 
the ordinary marking-gauge by boring a hole in one end and 
splitting the gauge so that a lead-pencil can be inserted and 
held. If there is not spring enough in the wood to hold the 
pencil put in a small screw to clamp the two sides together 
and hold the pencil. 

To Fit Keys. —To fit a key in a lock when the lock cannot 
be taken out hold the key over a flame until it is well smoked; 
then place carefully in the lock and turn it as far as possible; 
then take out, and where it strikes and needs filing will be 
marked in the soot. 

Resilience of Timber. —Comparative resilience of various 
kinds of timbers: ash being 1; fir, 4; elm, 54; pitch-pine, 57; 
teak, 59; oak, 63; spruce, 64; yellow pine, 64; cedar, 66; 
chestnut, 73; larch, 84; beech, 86. (By resilience is under¬ 
stood the quality of springing back or toughness.) 

Increase of Strength of Timber by Seasoning. —Per¬ 
centage of increase, strength of different woods by seasoning: 
white pine, 9%; elm, 12.3%; oak, 26.6%; ash, 44.7%; beech, 
61.9%. 

Trestles, Step-ladders, etc. —When making trestles, step- 
ladders, etc. for use during the construction of a building, 
make the legs 4 feet apart, centre to centre, so they will span, 
and set securely on the joist, whether spaced 12 or 16 inches 
on centres. 

Size of Dentils. —The size of dentils vary according to the 
order of architecture in which they are used, but a good rule 
for proportioning the size of dentils is as follows: 

Width = j’j of .length; 

Thickness of length; 

Space between = \ of width; 

A Good Paint for Roofs or Outbuildings. —Take 1 gallon 
of crude petroleum and add to it slowly 3 pounds of Prince’s 
Brown Metallic, mix thoroughly, and if necessary thin down 
with a little coal-oil. Apply in the same manner as ordinary 
paint. 

To File a Saw.— When filing a saw use the file with the point 
toward the handle of the saw, as this leaves the ragged edge 
on the back of the tooth and keeps the cutting edge of the 
tooth sharp. 

Size of a Flour-barrel.— A flour-barrel is 28 to 30 inches 
in height, and 20 to 21 inches in diameter* 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


391 


To Swing a Door over an Uneven Floor. —To swing a 
door over an uneven floor, or one that rises where the door 
swings so that the door rubs, use a wide butt at the bottom 
and a narrow one at the top of the door. This will raise the 
front of the door as it is opened. Two sizes of butts can also 
be used in this manner, to give a little gravity to the door to 
keep it closed. 

Sheathing Paper Back of Frames. —When sheathing paper 
is used on a building and the siding is to be cut between the 
casings and the corner-boards always run a strip of the paper 
unde* - the casings and corner-boards as they are put on; this 
strip of paper can then be lapped on the paper as it is put on 
and makes a tight job. 

Nailing Bridging. —Do not nail the bottom end of floor 
bridging until after the floor is laid, as the floor then brings 
the joist into line. 

TABLES CONVENIENT FOR TAKING INSIDE DIMENSIONS. 

A box 24X24X14.7 inches will hold a barrel of 31J gallons. 

A box 15X14X11 inches will hold 10 gallons. 

A box 81X7X4 inches will hold a gallon. 

A box 4X 4X3.6 inches wiil hold a quart. 

A box 24X23X16 inches will hold 5 bushels. 

A box 16X12X11.2 inches will hold a bushel. 

A box 12X11.2X8 inches will hold a halt-bushel. 

A box 7X6.4X12 inches will hold a peck. 

A box 8.4X8X4 inches will hold a half-peck, or 4 dry quarts, 

A box 6X 5f X 4 inches will hold a half-gallon. 

A box 4X4X2^ inches will hold a pint. 

Fire-brick. —Fire-brick are made by a similar process to 
making ordinary brick, but from different material. The clay 
used is known as fire-clay. This clay is composed of hydrated 
silicates of alumina, associated with silica and alumina in 
various states or subdivisions and sufficiently free from alka¬ 
lies, iron, and lime to resist vitrification at high temperature. 

Oxide of iron or sulphate of iron in the clay is very injurious, 
and when found in the brick in a quantity of more than 5 per 
cent they should be rejected. Lime, soda, potash, and magnesia 
are also injurious and any fire-brick containing over 3 per cent 
of either should be rejected. 


392 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


Good fire-clay should contain 50 to 80 per cent of silica and 
18 to 35 per cent of alumina; it should be of a uniform texture 
and have a greasy feel between the fingers. 

Fire-brick which are to be exposed to heat should be laid in 
fire-clay, and should be thoroughly wet before laying; the 
mortar should be used very thin and the joint made as tight as 
possible. 

Vitrified Brick are brick burned to a hard glossy con¬ 
sistency so as to be impermeable to water and fit for damp- 
proof work, paving, and such purposes. 

Laying Fire-brick. — Fire-clay. —Fire-clay is not a cement , and 
it has little or no holding power. Its office is therefore not to act 
as a binder, but merely to fill the voids. In consequence a fire¬ 
brick joint is the more perfect in proportion as the quantity 
of fire-clay approaches the amount necessary to fill the voids, 
without preventing the brick from touching, precisely as in 
case of a glue joint between pieces of wood. Clay of consist¬ 
ency sufficient to permit use of trowel should not be per¬ 
mitted; the proper way is to mix the clay to requisite thin¬ 
ness, dip each brick into the clay, “rub and shove” each brick 
into final place, then drive it with mallet or hammer and block 
until it actually touches the brick below it. Rigid adherence 
to these directions is absolutely essential when constructing fire- 
arches. 

The two defects of fire-clay are its shrinkage during drying 
and its lack of cementing power;. The former may be greatly 
diminished by adding to the clay about 20 per cent of its volume 
of fire-brick pulverized and sifted to fire-brick flour. This can 
% be obtained in many places, tut unless it is of the requisite 
fineness, avoid it, as coarse rrr^srial will thicken the joints an 
amount which offsets t e advantage. 

The cemen ing power of fire-clay may be increased by adding 
to and slacking in with it about 1| per cent of its volume of 
lime; measure the clay and for each cubic foot put in a piece of 
lime not exceeding 4"X2"X§"- This will have just suffi¬ 
cient fluxing power to unite with the clay and form a hard clinker 
which takes a grip on the fire-brick. It should always be used 
when building arches. 

After all is done give the joints several coats of clay wash, 
which should be made of a thin solution of fire-clay and be 
applied with a whitewash-brush. 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 393 

From 600 to 800 pounds of fire-clay is enough to lay 1000 
brick. 

All fire-brick work should be warmed up slowly to expel 
moisture before applying severe heat. 

General Rules for Brick Chimneys or Stacks. —The 
diameter of the base should not be less than one-tenth of the 
height if square; if round, one-twelfth of the height. 

Batter of chimn ys, 0.03 inch to the foot. 

The thickness of the brickwork should be one brick, from top, 
to 25 feet from same; a brick and a half from 25 to 50 feet 
from the top, increasing by the half-fcrick every 25 feet from the 
top. If the inside diameter at the top exceeds 4 feet 6 inches, 
the top length should be a brick and a half. 

Four courses of brickwork will lay 1 foot in height in a 
chimney. 

In building chimneys from stoves or fireplaces never connect 
two fires to one flue or neither one may burn satisfactorily; each 
fire should have a separate flue running to the top of the chim¬ 
ney. 

Fireplace Openings in Chimneys. —Fireplace openings for 
grates should be about 2 feet 5 inches in height from the floor, 
and about 6 inches larger in width than the size grate to be 
used so as to allow for the fire-brick lining. 

An iron bar f inch by 3 inches makes the best arch for over a 
fireplace. If a brick arch is used it should be a flat jack-arch. 

Iron Bond in Brick Walls. —In brick walls where great 
strength is desired flat iron, say r y' X 3", can be bedded in the 
walls at certain intervals ruuning lengthwise of the wall. 

When the walls of the Palace Hotel, San Francisco, were built, 
iron bond of this kind was built in the walls to give them strength 
to withstand the shocks of earthquakes. That it fulfilled the 
purpose for which it was put in the walls is shown by the fact 
that the walls of the building were not damaged by the earth¬ 
quake when this part of the city was destroyed, but the build¬ 
ing was destroyed by fire. 

Brick for Laying Circle Walls. —Brick for laying circle 
walls should be made to. conform to the desired radius if the 
circle has a radius of less than 7 feet. Brick to lay a radius of 
7 feet or over can be selected from straight brick, as the brick 
to lay a 7-foot radius has a curve of but T V inch to a brick. 

The curve of brick to lay various circles are as follows; 


394 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


Brick to work to a radius of 1 foot should have a curve of 

inch to the brick. 

Brick to work to a radius of 1 foot 6 inches should have a 
curve of | inch to the brick. 

Brick to work to a radius of 2 feet should have a curve of T \ 
inch to the brick. 

Brick to work to a radius of 2 feet 6 inches should have a curve 
of \ inch to the brick. 

Brick to work to a radius of from 3 feet to 4 feet should have 
a curve of inch to the brick. 

Brick to work to a radius of from 4 feet to 6 feet should have 
a curve of £ i ch to the brick. 

Brick to work to a radius of from 6 feet to 7 feet should have 
a curve of ^ inch to the brick. 

Lime Mortar , in Thick Walls. —Pure lime mortar should 
not be used in any thick, heavy masonry. Pure lime mortar 
requires air to cause it to harden or set, and if used in the in¬ 
terior of thick walls is liable to dry out without attaining any 
strength whatever. 

In all thick walls a hydraulic lime or lime and cement mortar 
should be used. 

Masons’ Plumb-rule. — The spirit plumb-rule is now gen¬ 
erally used by all masons, and is quicker but not so reliable as 
the old plumb-bob. A spirit plumb-rule should be tested often 
to see if true; a knock or jar may move the glass a little and 
make the rule untrue. A good way is for the mason to test 
his plumb-rule every morning before starting to work. 

To test the plumb-rule, hold it up against the side of a house 
or some solid object and when the “bead” shows plumb scribe 
a mark on the wall at top and bottom of the rule, now turn the 
rule over, place the edge of the rule again to the marks, and if 
the “bead” shows plumb the rule is true, but if not it should 
be adjusted as explained for adjusting the level on page 194. 

To Remove Stains from Stone.— Take fullers’ earth and 
make a paste to which add a little lye; spread this on the stain 
and let dry, then wash clean. It may require two or three 
applications to take out the stain. 

To Select a Mallet or Hammer-handle. —In selecting a 
wooden mallet or a hammer-handle, pick out a light-colored one, 
as this is the sap-wood and is tougher than the dark wood, which 
comes from the heart of the tree. Tests have shown that the 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


395 


toughest part of the tree is the sap-wood or part next the bark 
just above the ground. 

Size of Brick to Lay English Cross Bond. —Brick to work 
English cross bond: the length of the brick must equal twice 
the width plus the thickness of one mortar joint. 

Thus, brick 8" long to lay English cross bond with joint 
must be 31" wide. 

A New Method for Cleaning Stonework has just been 
given a practical trial by the Treasury Department. The whole 
of the Treasury Building has been cleaned for the first time in 
40 years. The work was done in 50 days and the change in the 
appearance of the building from a sooty gray to granite white 
is as striking as if it had been rebuilt of new stone. The cleaning 
has been done by the aid of a liquid preparation invented by 
Mr. James F. Bruce, of Washington, D. C. The ingredients 
of the liquid are secret, but the inventor has applied for a patent. 
The liquid is colorless and does not in any way injure the stone. 
It is applied with an ordinary paint-brush, and this is followed 
by a wet sponge which seems to gather up the cleaning liquid 
and the dirt. The work is finished by the application of a hose 
and the granite appears as clean as if new. The result is said 
to be as satisfactory as the sand-blast method for granite and 
other hard stone, though inapplicable to sandstone. It is also 
much less disagreeable to owners of neighboring property and 
to passers-by. The chief advantage of the process lies, how¬ 
ever, in its extreme cheapness and in the ease and rapidity with 
which it is applied. 

Efflorescence. —When the face of some walls become wet 
or damp they will be covered with a sort of white efflorescence; 
it is in some cases a nitrate or carbonate of potash, more fre¬ 
quently a carbonate or sulphate of soda. There is no way to 
prevent this unless by coating the bricks with some preparation 
to render them water- and moisture-proof. 

Size of a Brick-hod. —A brick-hod measures 8 inches on 
the sides and 20 to 22 inches in length, and will carry 16 to 20 
bricks. 

Size of Mortar-hod. —The mortar-hod is usually made 
about 22 inches in length and 12 to 14 inches deep on the sides. 

Stain for Staining Bricks. —For staining bricks red, melt 
1 ounce of glue in 1 gallon of water, add a piece of alum the 
size of an egg, then \ pound Venetian red and 1 pound of Spanish 


396 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS. ETC. 


brown. Try the color on the bricks before using and c han ge 
light or dark with the red or brown, using a yellow mineral for 
buff. 

Artificial Marble. — According to M. Maard, artificial mar¬ 
ble may be produced in the following manner: 10 parts of 
burnt gypsum and 1 part of alum are mixed together in a little 
water. This is then calcined and afterward reduced to a powder. 
To 25 parts of the powder is added 22 parts of talc, 5 parts of 
magnesium chloride, 44 parts of clay, and 1 part of potassic 
alum. This mixture can be worked polished, or painted similar 
to marble. 

Protection of Stonework. — The stone belt course and all 
stone t rimming s should be carefully protected from the mortar 
of the brickwork above. This can be done by building in a 
strip of heavy building paper (not tar paper) under the first 
course of brick above the stone, letting the paper hang out over 
the stone so as to shed the mortar droppings. The paper should 
be let into the joint about 1 inch and can be cut off when the 
walls are washed down. 

To Brighten Old Brickwork. — To make brickwork look 
new and bright apply a wash as follows: Take 4 pound of glue, 
soak it in waterovemight and then dissolve it in about 8 gallons 
of water, then add 1 ounce of bichromate of potash in solution 
and 10 pounds of dark Venetian red and enough yellow ochre 
to give the desired shade. Apply the wash as thin as possible 
with a large whitewash-brush. 

To Clean Brickwork. — Mix together 1 pint of liquid am¬ 
monia, 1 gallon soft soap, 2 pounds powdered pumice. This 
will make a soft paste which can be applied with a brush. 
Dust off the brickwork and apply a coat of the mixture and 
after letting it stand about twenty minutes scrub it off, using 
a scrubbing-brush and clean water. Then rinse off with a hose. 

Impression-wax. — To make squeezing-wax for taking re¬ 
verse impressions of carvings, mouldings, or other work, take 
9 ounces of beeswax, 12 ounces lard, 3 ounces olive-oil, and 
5 pounds whiting (or in like proportion). Melt the three 
former ingredients together, then add the whiting, pounding it 
up well before mixing. When cold knead well together with 
the hands; or, take I pound of hogs’ lard, \ pound of beeswax, 
2 pounds of flour, 1 gill of linseed-oil; melt all down. If too 
sticky add more flour; if too hard melt down again and add 
a little more lard. 


various receipts, hint?. etc. 




Geliteve Mocue fob Plantes Cv?ror,. — To p?E|«re 
gelatine for making moulds, take 4 parts by we®a of gEhtfoe 
and let soak in water for several hours until it has absorbed 
all the water it will, then heat until it becomes liquid. 

Add to the liquid 1 part by weight of Xew Orleans mohisees 
and m ix wdL This will give a very flexible mould. 

Moulds fob Plisteh-osis. — Take the very best glue you 
can get, place it in cold water at night, the cer; monmig take 
it out; you will find it swollen: the water it hag abashed 
during the night is sufficient to mek it by heat; mix then as 
much thick glycerine with it as you had jdne, and keep the 
vessel containing them in a steam- or water-bath tffi aD the 
water is about evaporated and there 5s left as much in weight 
as the weight of the dry doe and glycerine taken together 
amounted to. This will make a compound of rime and glycerine 
which will never dry, and a mould of it can be used over and 
over again. 

A 717 £-77 : J . . -A Z7 7-7 7 7' 7 7*7*7 ZAg 2771 7 He 

unaffected by the heat of the sank rays and that wifl not melt 
or run. is made by adding burned time ground but not slaked* 
to coal-tar. Bod together in the proportion of 15 pounds 
of lirw to 100 pounds tar. To avoid the tar boding over, 
stir the fow in the boding: tar. The mivt .ire muss be put on 
while hot- 

11 ow to Mix Plasteb of Pass. — In mixing ptaste* of 
Paris do not pour the water on the piaster, but put the water 
in the bowl and shake or rift m the plaster until the water 
will take no more. Do not stir it until all the piaster has been 
put in, and then stir very little. Stirring it only hastens the 
setting. To retard the setting add a little gliae-water- 

Tixtixg ob Coiobesg of W alls. — Plastered walls on which 
it is not desired to put paper for some rime can be tinted or 
colored by adding a little coloring matter to the skim or finish 
coat of plaster. The tint or color daeadiig on the amount 
of coloring matter used. 

The folio wing colors can be obtained in various shades by 
using the material indicated: 

For blue, use ultramarine blue. 

For black, use lampblack or ivory black. 

For greet, use a mixture of yellow and Uue. 

Few* brown, use brown umber. 

For red, use Venetian or Indian red. 






398 


VARIOUS RECEIPTS, HINTS, ETC. 


For yellow, use chrome yellow. 

For orange, use a mixture of red and yellow. 

A Cement “Marble. ”—Under French patents the Journal 
of the Society of Chemical Industry gives the following process 
of manufacturing artificial marble from cement. 

Portland cement is mixed with mineral colors, and moulded 
into objects with water containing sodium silicate and potas¬ 
sium silicate. After allowing the mass to dry for several days, 
it is placed in a mixture of 5 litres of “silicious” water and 
1 litre of potassium silicate solution, which is then heated 
and kept boiling for 24 hours. The mass obtained is dried 
and polished as usual. 

How to Prepare Kalosmine. —Soak 1 pound white glue 
over night, then dissolve it in boiling water, and add 20 pounds 
of Paris white, diluting with water until the mixture is of 
the consistency of cream or rich milk. To tint the above add' 
colors as follows: 

Lilac .—Add to the kalsomine 2 parts of Prussian blue and 
1 of vermilion, stirring thoroughly, and taking care not to’give 
the mixture too bright a color. 

Gray .—Add raw umber, with a little lampblack. 

Rose .—Three parts of vermilion and 1 of red lead, added 
in very small quantities until the desired shade is produced. 

Lavender .—Mix a light blue and tint it slightly with ver- 
milioil. 

Straw .—Chrome yellow, with a little Spanish brown. 

Buff .—Two parts Indian yellow and 1 part burnt sienna. 

To Prevent Dampness in Tool-chests. —Keep several 
pieces of lime in the chest which will absorb all moisture and 
prevent tools from rusting. The lime can be kept in an open 
tin can or box. 

Red Stain for Brick or Concrete. —Take 7 pounds new 
slaked lime, 14 pounds of dry red ochre, 1 pound of alum, 
and \ pound of common salt; dissolve in warm water and 
apply while warm. 

Wash to Whiten Dirty Plastered Walls. —Boil 1 part 
glue in water until dissolved. Then add 5 parts zinc white, 
mix with hot water until the consistency of cream, and apply 
with a whitewash brush. This will not rub off and can be 
painted over at any time as it acts as a size on the plaster. 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


399 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 

LINEAR MEASURE. 

1 hair’s breadth.= inch. 

3 barleycorns (lengthwise) . . = 1 inch. 

7.92 inches.= 1 link. 

12 inches.= 1 foot = 0.3048 metre. 

3 feet.= 1 yard = 0.91438 metre. 

5§ yards.= 1 rod, perch, or pole. 

4 poles or 100 links.= 1 chain. 

10 chains.= 1 furlong. 

8 furlongs.= 1 mile = 1.6093 kilometres 

= 5280 ft. 

3 miles (nautical).= 1 league. 

1 line.= 12 inch. 

1 nail (cloth measure).= 2\ inches. 

1 palm.= 3 inches. 

1 hand (used for height 

of horses).= 4 inches. 

1 span.= 9 inches. 

1 cubit.= 18 inches. 

1 pace (military).= 2§ feet. 

1 pace (common).= 3 feet. 

1 Scotch ell.= 37.06 inches. 

1 vara (Spanish).= 33.3 inches. 

1 English ell.= 45 inches. 

1 fathom.= 0 feet. 

1 cable’s length.=120 fathoms. 

1 “knot”.- =6082.66 feet. 

1 degree of equator.= 69.1613 statute miles. 

1 degree of meridian. . . , ... = 69.046 statute miles 

1 degree of equator.= 60 geographical miles. 

1 degree of meridian.= 59.899 geographical miles. 

1.1527 statute miles.= 1 geographical mile. 

6086.07 feet.= 1 m i n u t e of longitude = 1 

nautical mile. 

SQUARE OR SURFACE MEASURE. 

144 square inches.= 1 square foot. 

9 square feet.=1 square yard = 1296 square inches. 

100 square feet. .=lsquare (builders’ measure). 


































400 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETO. 


LAND MEASURE. 


30f square yards.=1 square rod. 

40 square rods.=1 square rood = 1210 square yards, 

4 square roods.=1 acre = 4840 square yards. 

640 acres.=1 square mile. 

208.71 feet square.=1 acre. 

1 square mile... = 1 section of land. 

160 acres. .= \ section of land. 


CUBIC MEASURE. 


1728 cubic inches. 

27 cubic feet. 

128 cubic feet. 

40 subic feet.. 

42 cubic feet. 

108 cubic feet. 

24.75 cubic feet of stone. 


= 1 cubic foot. 

= 1 cubic yard. 

= 1 cord. 

= 1 American shipping ton, 
= 1 British shipping ton. 

= 1 stack of wood. 

= 1 perch. 


Note .—In Oklahoma, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Ohio 
a perch is fixed at 25 cu. ft. of stone. In Delaware it is 24| 
cu. ft. in walls, 27 cu. ft. when piled on the ground, 30 cu. ft. 
when in a boat, and 302 cu. ft. in cars. In Colorado a perch 
of stone in mason work is 16J cu. ft., and for brickwork measure 
laid in a wall, 22 bricks per cubic foot for a foot wall and 15 
bricks for what is known as an 8-inch wall. In Philadelphia 
22 cu. ft. is considered a perch. 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT (ORDINARY COMMERCIAL WEIGHT), 


16 drams.= 1 ounce, oz. 

16 ounces.= 1 pound, lb. 

28 lbs. (old).= 1 quarter, qr. 

4 quarters (old) ) 

100 lbs., pounds ) 

20 hundredweight. .. = 1 ton. 

100 pounds.= 1 cental. 

175 troy pounds.= 144 avoirdupois, 

1 troy pound.=5760 grains. 

1 avoirdupois pound = 7000 grains. 


Avoirdupois weight is used to weigh all coarse articles, as hay, 
meat, fish, potash, groceries, flax, butter, cheese, etc., and metals, 
except precious metals. Formerly the usual custom was to 
allow 112 pounds for a hundredweight and 28 pounds for a 






















MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 401 

quarter, but this practice has very nearly passed away. The 
custom-house still adheres to the old usage. 

APOTHECARIES’ MEASURE—LIQUID. 

60 minims or drops, m., = l fluid drachm. 

8 fluid drachms.=1 fluid ounce. 

16 fluid ounces.=1 pint (octarius). 

8 pifcts.=1 gallon (congius)o 


These apothecarie ’ weights and measures are used by apoth¬ 
ecaries and physicians in compounding medicines, but drugs 
and medicines are bought and sold by avoirdupois weight. 

The standard avoirdupois pound is the weight of 27.7015 
cubic inches of distilled water weighed in air at 39.1°, the barom¬ 
eter at 30 inches. 

APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT— DRY. 

20 grains. . = 1 scruple. 

3 scruples = 1 dram. 

8 drams.. = 1 ounce. 

12 ounces =1 pound. 


LIQUID OR WINE MEASURE. 


4 gills. 

= 1 pint, pt. 

2 pints. 

= 1 quart, qt. 

4 quarts. 

= 1 gallon, gal. 

42 gallons. 

= 1 tierce. 

1J tierces or 63 gallons.. .. 

= 1 hogshead, hhd. 

84 gallons. . . ; . 

= 1 puncheon. 

1 J puncheons or 126 gallons 

= 1 pipe. 

2 pipes. 

= 1 tun. 

231 cubic inches. 

= 1 gallon. 

10 gallons. 

= 1 anker. 

18 “ . 

= 1 runlet. 

311 “ . 

= 1 barrel. 


This measure is used to measure water, wine, spirits, cider, oil- 
honey, etc. In London the gill is usually called a quartern. 















402 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


ALE OR BEER MEASURE. 
2 pints... 


4 quarts. ... = 
9 gallons.. .. = 
2 firkins. . . . = 
2 kilderkins = 
barrels. . .. = 
1J hogsheads = 
1£ puncheons = 


= 1 quart. 

1 gallon. 

= 1 firkin. 

1 kilderkin. 

1 barrel. 

1 hogshead. 

1 puncheon.- 
1 butt. 


Used to measure beer, ales, porter, etc. An ale gallon meaa 
ares 282 cubic inches. 


ENGLISH WINE MEASURE. 


18 

25 

42 

7J 

4 

63 


U. S. gallons. ... =1 runlet. 
English gallons 
U. S. gallons 
English gallons. . = 1 firkin of beer. 

firkins. ..=1 barrel. 

English gallons 
U. S. gallons 


j- =1 tierce. 

. =1 
.. =1 

j- = 1 hogshead. 


DRY MEASURE. 


2 pints. . . = 1 quart .. 
4 quarts. =1 gallon . . 
2 gallons. = 1 peck. ... 
4 pecks. . = 1 bushel. . 
36 bushels = 1 chaldron 

4 bushels (in England) 

2 coons “ “ 

5 quarters 11 

2 weys ‘ ‘ “ 


= 67.2 cubic inches. 

= 288.8 “ “ 

= 537.6 “ “ 

= 2150.42 “ “ 

= 57.244 “ feet. 

= 1 coon. 

= 1 quarter. 

= 1 wey. - 
= 1 last. 


A gallon, dry measure, measures 268f cubic inches. 


SURVEYORS’ SQUARE MEASURE. 

625 square links =1 square rod, sq. rd. 

16 “ rods =1 “ chain, sq. cli. 

10 “ chains = 1 acre, A. 

640 acres =1 square mile, sq. mi. 

36 square miles or 6 miles square = 1 township, tp. 




MENSURATION TABLES, ETC, 


403 


SURVEYORS’ LONG MEASURE. 

7.92 inches. . = 1 link. 

25 links.... = 1 pole. 

100 links_=1 chain. ' 

10 chains. . = 1 furlong. 

8 furlongs = 1 mile. 

Used by surveyors, civil engineers, etc., in measuring distances. 
MEASURE OF TIME. 


60 seconds, sec. 

— 1 minute, min. 

60 minutes. 

= 1 hour, hr. 

24 hours. 

= 1 day, dy 

7 days. 

= 1 week, wk. 

2 weeks. 

= 1 fortnight. 

4 weeks... 

= 1 month, mo. 

13 months 1 day 6 hrs. 

= 1 Julian year. 

365 aays 6 hours. 

= 1 Julian year. 

366 days., 

= 1 leap year. 

12 calendar months. . 

= 1 year. 


Used for computing time. 

CIRCULAR MEASURE. 

60 seconds, . =1 minute, 

60 minutes. .. . = 1 degree, °. 

30 degrees. . .. =1 sign, s. 

9.0 degrees. -. .. = 1 quadrant. 

12 signs.=a circle. 

4 quadrants ) , - . . 

___ \ =a circumference of a circle. 

360 degrees .. | 

Used in measuring latitude, longitude, etc. 

TROY WEIGHT. 

Used in Weighing Gold or Silver. 

24 grains.=1 pennyweight. 

20 penny weights = 1 ounce. 

12 ounces.=1 pound. 

A carat of the jewellers, for precious stones, is, in the United 
States, 3.2 grains; in London, 3.17 grains; in Paris 3.18 grains 
are divided into 4 jewellers’ grains. In troy, apothecaries’, and 
avoirdupois weights the grain is the same. 













404 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETC, 


MEASURES OF VALUE. 
U. S. Standard. 

10 mills. . = 1 cent. 

10 cents.. *= 1 dime. 
10 dimes =1 dollar. 
10 dollars = 1 eagle. 


The standard of gold and silver is 900 parts of pure metal and 


100 parts of alloy to 1000 parts of coin. 


WEIGHT OF COIN. 


Double eagle. 


=516 troy grains. 


Eagle. 


= 258 troy grains. 


Dollar (gold). 


= 25.8 troy grains. 


Dollar (silver). 

=412.5 troy grains. 


Half dollar. . 


= 192 troy grains. 


5-cent piece (nickel) 

= 77.16 troy grains. 


3-cent piece (nickel) 

= 30 troy grains. 


Cent (copper) 


= 48 troy grains. 


NUMBER OF ENGLISH 

OR UNITED STATES YARDS 

IN MILES 

OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 


Name. 

Yards. 

Name. 

Yards. 

Arabian. 

2,148 

Luthenian.. 


Bohemian. 

10,187 

Oldenburg.. 


Brebant. 

6,082 

Persian (paisang). . . 

... 6,082 

Burgundy. 

6,183 

Polish (long).. 


Chinese (His). 

682 

Polish (short). 

.... 6,095 

Dutch (Ure). 

6,395 

Portuguese (leguos). 

. . . 6,760 

Danish. 

8,244 

Prussian.. 

.... 8,498 

English (U. S.). 

1,760 

Roman (modern). . . 

. .. 2,035 

English (geographical). . 

2,025 

Roman (ancient). ... 

.... 1,613 

Flemish. 

6,869 

Russian (verst)._ 


German (geographical) . 

8,100 

Saxon.. 


Hamburg. 

.8,244 

Scotch.. 


Hanover. 

11,559 

Silesian. 

.... 7,083 

Hesse. 

10,547 

Spanish (leguas). . . 

.... 4,630 

Hungarian. . .... 

9,113 

Spanish (com.). . . . 


French (art leagues) . .. 

4,860 

Swiss. 


French (marine). 

6,075 

Swedish. 


Legal Le’g’e (2000 toises) 4,263 

Turkey. 

.... 1,821 

Irish. 

3,338 

Tuscan. 


Italian.... 

2,025 

Vienna (post mile). 












































MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


405 


TABLE OF MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS. 


14 pounds.=1 stone (horseman’s weight). 

56 pounds.=1 firkin of butter. 

64 pounds.=1 firkin of soft soap. 

112 pounds.=1 barrel of raisins. 

256 pounds.=1 pack of soft soap. 

196 pounds.=1 barrel of flour. 

200 pounds.=1 barrel of beef, pork, or fish. 

280 pounds.=1 barrel of salt, New York. 

22 stones (301 lbs.).=1 sack of wool. 

17 stones 2 lbs. (240 lbs.) =1 pack of wool. 

60 pounds.=1 truss of hay (new). 

50 pounds. =1 truss of hay (old). 

40 pounds.=1 truss of straw. 

400 pounds.=1 bale of cotton. 

100 pounds.=1 quintal of fish. 


COMMON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES AND THEIR 
METRIC EQUIVALENTS. 


An inch =2.54 centimetres. 

A foot — . 304S metre. 

A yard = .9144 metre. 

A rod = 5.029 metres. 

A mile = 1.6093 kilometres. 

A square inch = 6.452 square 
centimetres. 

A square foot = . 0929 sq. m. 

A square yard = .8361 sq. m. 
An acre = . 4047 hectare. 

A square mile =259 hectares. 

A cubic foot = .02832 cu. m. 

A cubic yard = .7646 cu. m. 

A cord =3.624 steres. 


A liquid quart = . 9465 litre. 

A gallon =3.786 litres. 

A dry quart = 1.101 litres 
A peck =8.811 litres. 

A bushel =35.24 litres. 

An ounce avoirdupois = 28.35 
grams. 

A pound avoirdupois = . 4336 
kilogram. 

A ton= .9072 tonneau. 

A grain troy =. 0648 gram. 

An ounce troy =31.104 grms. 
A pound troy = .3732 kgrm. 
















406 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


U. S. Land Measure. 

A range is a line of townships running north and south, and 
is known by its number east or west of the principal meridian. 

A township is divided into 36 equal squares, called sections 
each 1 mile square, and containing 640 acres. 

A section is variously divided for purposes of sale. The U. S 
Land Office recognizes the following divisions:- 


Half-section.= 1 X | mile = | sq. mile=320 acres 

Quarter-section. ..= \X l mile = J sq. mile = 160 acres 

Half-quarter-section. =iXj mile = | sq. mile= 80 acres 


Quarter-quarter-section. . . = JXi mile= r *g sq. mile= 40 acres 

Old French Linear and Land Measure. 

12 lines.=1 inch 6 feet.=1 toise 

12 inches.=1 foot 32 toises.=1 arpent 

1024 sq. toises.=1 sq. arpent 

The French foot equals 12.79 English inches. 

The arpent is the old French name for acre, and contains 
nearly § of an English acre. 


SPANISH LAND MEASURE. 


Sometimes used in Texas, Mexico New Mexico, Arizona, and 
California. 


26,000,000 

sq. varas (sq. of 5099 

varas 1 = J 1 ^ague 
varas; - -J j , abor 

= 4605.5 

acrea 

1,000,000 

sq varas (sq. of 1000 

varas) = 1 labor 

= 177.136 

acres. 

25.000,000 

sq varas (sq. of 5000 

varas) = 1 league 

= 4428.4 

acres. 

12,500,000 

sq. varas (sq of 3535.5 

varas) = $ league 

= 2214.2 

acres. 

, 8,333,333 

sq. varas (sq. of 2886.7 

varas) = $ league 

= 1476.13 

acres. 

6,250,000 

sq. varas (sq. of 2500 

varas) = $ league 

= 1107.1 

acres. 

7,225,600 

sq. varas (sq. of 2688 

varas) 

= 1280 

acres. 

3,612,800 

sq. varas (sq. of 1900.8 

varas) = 1 section 

= 640 

acres. 

1,806.400 

sq. varas (sq. of 1344 

varas) = $ section 

= 320 

acres. 

903,200 

sq. varas (sq. of 950.44 

varas) = \ section 

= 160 

acres. 

451,600 

sq. varas (sq. of 672 

varas) = 4 section 

= 80 

acres. 

225.800 

sq. varas (sq. of 475 

varas) = A? section 

= 40 

acres. 

5,045.376 sq. varas (sq. of 75 137 varas) = 4840 sq. yd. 

= 1 

acre. 


To find the number of acres in any number of square varas multiply 
the latter by 177 (or to be more exact, by 177f), and cut off six decimals. 

1 vara = 33$ inches. 1900.8 varas = 1 mile. 










MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


407 


WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 


1 polgrada (12 linea), 

1 pie. 

1 vara. 

1 gantah. 

1 caban. 

1 libra (16 onzo). . .. 

1 arroba. 

1. catty (16 tael). 

1 pecul (100 catty).. 


= .927 inch 

= 11.125 inches 
= 33.375 inches 
= .8796 gallon 

= 21.991 gallons 
= 1.0144 lb. av. 

- 25.360 lb. av. 
= 1.94 lb. av. 

= 139.482 lb. av. 


Legal Weights (in Pounds) per Bushel op Various Com¬ 
modities Prepared by Department op Commerce and 
Labor, Bureau of Standards, Washington. 

The list below includes products for which legal weights have 
been fixed in but one or two States. 

Apple seeds, 40 pounds (Rhode Island and Tennessee). 
Beggarweed seed, 62 pounds (Florida). 

Blackberries, 32 pounds (Iowa); 48 pounds (Tennessee); dried, 
28 pounds (Tennessee). 

Blueberries, 42 pounds (Minnesota). 

Bromus inermus, 14 pounds (North Dakota). 

Cabbage, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 

Canary seed, 60 pounds (Tennessee). 

Cantaloupe melon, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 

Cement, 80 pounds (Tennessee). 

Cherries, 40 pounds (Iowa); with stems, 56 pounds (Tennessee); 

without stems, 64 pounds (Tennessee). 

Chestnuts, 50 pounds (Tennessee); 57 pounds (Virginia). 
Chufa, 54 pounds (Florida). 

Cottonseed, staple, 42 pounds (South Carolina). 

Cucumbers, 48 pounds (Missouri and Tennessee); 50 pounds 
(Wisconsin). 

Currants, 40 pounds (Iowa and Minnesota). 

Feed, 50 pounds (Massachusetts). 

Grapes, 40 pounds (Iowa); with stems, 48 pounds (Tennessee); 

without stems, 60 pounds (Tennessee). 

Guavas, 54 pounds (Florida). 

Hickory nuts, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 











408 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


Hominy, 60 pounds (Ohio); 62 pounds (Tennessee). 
Horseradish, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 

Italian rye-grass seed, 20 pounds (Tennessee). 

Johnson grass, 28 pounds (Arkansas). 

Kaffir corn, 56 pounds (Kansas). 

Kale, 30 pounds (Tennessee). 

Land plaster, 100 pounds (Tennessee). 

Meal, 46 pounds (Alabama); unbolted, 48 pounds (Alabama). 
Middlings, fine, 40 pounds (Indiana); coarse middlings, 30 
pounds (Indiana). 

Millet, Japanese barnyard, 35 pounds (Massachusetts). 

Mustard, 30 pounds (Tennessee). 

Plums, 40 pounds (Florida); 64 pounds (Tennessee). 

Plums, dried, 28 pounds (Michigan). 

Popcorn, 70 pounds (Indiana and Tennessee); in the ear, 42 
pounds (Ohio). 

Prunes, dried, 28 pounds (Idaho); green, 45 pounds (Idaho). 
Quinces, 48 pounds (Florida, Iowa, and Tennessee). 

Rape-seed, 50 pounds (Wisconsin). 

Raspberries, 32 pounds (Kansas); 48 pounds (Tennessee). 
Rhubarb, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 

Sage, 4 pounds (Tennessee). 

Salads, 30 pounds (Tennessee). 

Sand, 130 pounds (Iowa). 

Spelt or spiltz, 40 pounds (North Dakota); 45 pounds (South 
Dakota). 

Spinach, 30 pounds (Tennessee). 

Strawberries, 32 pounds (Iowa); 48 pounds (Tennessee). 
Sugar-cane seed, 57 pounds (New Jersey.) 

Velvet-grass seed, 7 pounds (Tennessee). 

Walnuts, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 

On the pages following are tabulated the products for which 
legal weights have been more widely established. 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 409 


LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL. 


1 

Apples. 

Barley. 

Beans. 

Beets. 

I 

j Blue-grass Seed. 

Bran.* 

Broom-corn Seed. 

Buckwheat. 

Carrots. 

Charcoal. 

Apples.* 

Dried Apples. 

* 

GO 

0 
o3 
<V 

a 

I Castor Beans 
(shelled). 

u. s. 



48 


50 





42 



Alabama. 


21 

47 

60 








Arizona, . 



45 

«55 









Arkansas. 

b 50 

24 

48 

a 60 



14 

20 

48 

52 



California. 



50 







40 



Colorado. 



43 

60 



14 



52 



Conn. 

48 

25 

48 

60 


c60 


20 


48 

50 

20 

Delaware. 












20 

Florida. ,. 

b 48 

24 

48 

<760 

48 



20 




Georgia. . 


24 

47 

e 60 



14 

/ 20 


52 



Hawaii. .. 



48 









Idaho. . .. 

b 45 

28 

43 







42 



Illinois. . . 


24 

48 

e 60 

46 


14 

20 


52 



Indiana. . 


25 

48 

60 

46 


14 



50 



Iowa. .... 

48 

24 

48 

60 

46 


14 

20 

30 

52 


20 

Kansas.. . 

6 48 

24 

48 

60 

46 


#14 

20 


50 



Kentucky 


24 

47 

e GO 

*45 


L 14 

20 


56 



Louisiana. 



48 










Maine. . . 

44 


48 

60 


60 




48 

50 


Maryland 












20 ’ 

Mass. 

48 

25 

43 

h CO 




20 


48 

50 


Michigan. 

48 

22 

43 

GO 

46 


14 



48 



Minnesota 

650 

28 

48 

60 


50 

14 


57 

50 

45 

20 

Mississippi 


26 

48 

e GO 

46 


14 

20 


48 



Missouri. . 

48 

24 

48 

i GO 

46 


14 

20 


52 

50 


Montana. 

45 


48 

GO 


50 

11 

20 


52 

50 


Nebraska 


24 

48 

e 60 

46 


14 

20 


52 



New Ham. 




62 





- 




N. Jersey. 

50 

25 

48 

CO 






50 



New York 

48 

25 

43 

60 




20 


48 

50 


N. Car. . . 



43 







50 



N. Dakota 

50 


43 

60 


60 


20 

30 

42 



Ohio. 

50 

24 

43 

GO 


56 




50 

50 


Oklahoma 



43 

60 


60 


20 

30 

42 



Oregon. .. 

45 

28 

46 







42 



Penn. 



47 







48 


//cl 8 

R. Island. 

48 

25 

43 

60 

46 

50 


20 


48 

50 

20 

B Dakota 



43 

60 


60 


20 

30 

42 



Tennessee 

650 

24 

43 

il 60 

46 

50 

14 

20 

42 

50 

50 

22 

Tevas 

45 

28 

43 

c 60 




20 


42 


22 

Vermont- 

46 


48 

62 


60 




48 

50 




28 

48 

e 60 



U 



52 



T 

Wash 

645 

28 

48 







42 



W Va 


25 

43 

60 






52 



Wisconsin 

50 

25 

48 

60 


50 

. . . . 

20 


50 

50 

. 


* Not defined. 


a Small white beans, 60 pounds. 
b Green apples. 

c Sugar beets and mangel wurzel. 
d Shelled beans, 69 pounds; velvet 
beans, 78 pounds. 
e White beans. 
f Wheat bran. 

Q English blue-grass seed, 22 pounds; 


h Soy beans, 58 pounds. 
i Green unshelled beans, 30 pounds. 
j Commercially dry, for all hard 
woods. 

k Fifteen pounds, commercially 
dry, for all soft woods. 

I Dried beans. 

itive blue-grass seed, 14 pounds. 





























































































































410 MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— (Continued). 



Clover Seed. 

Coal. 

Coke. 

Corn. 

Corn Meal.* 

Coal* 

Anthracite 

Coal. 

Bituminous 

Coal. 

Cannel Coal. 

Mineral Coal. 

Stone Coal. 

Corn.* 

Corn in Ear, 

Husked. 

Corn in Ear, 

Unhusked. 

j Shelled Corn, j 

T7 S . . 




80 





5G 




48 

Alfl hn rnn. 










70 

75 

56 


Arizona. 









54 





Arkansas. 

60 









70 

74 

56 

48 

Colorado. 

60 

80 




80 




70 



50 

Conn.. . . 

60 


80 










Florida 











70 

56 

48 

Georgia. . 

60 






80 



70 


56 

48 

Idahp. - • 

60 












Illinois. . 

60 






80 



70 


56 

48 

Indiana, . 

GO 





80 




(a) 


56 

50 

Iowa. 

CO 






80 

38 


670 


53 

Kansas. .. 

GO 






80 



c 70 



50 

Kentucky 

GO 

76 

76 

76 

76 

76 

76 


d 70 



56 

50 

Louisiana. 









56 




Maine. .. . 









56 




e 50 

Mass. 

60 











/ 50 

50 

Michigan. 

60 





80 




6 70 


56 

50 

Minnesota 

GO 

80 








70 


56 

Mississippi 

GO 






80 



72 


56 

48 

Missouri. . 

GO 





80 





70 


50 

Montana. 

CO 





76 




70 


56 

50 

Nebraska 

60 






80 



70 


56 

50 

N. Hamp. 









56 



50 

N. Jersey. 

64 












New York 

60 












50 

N. Car. . 

60 


J 










N. Dakota 

60 






80 



70 


56 


Ohio. . . . 

60 



80 

70 



40 


68 


56 


Oklahoma 

60 






80 



70 


56 


Oregon. .. 

CO 












Penn. 

60 

(7 75 


76 




40 

58 





R. Island. 

60 

80 






40 


70 


56 

50 

S. Car 












648 

S. Dakota 

60 






80 



70 


56 

Tennessee 

i GO 






80 

40 

• 

70 

7 74 

5b 

* * "* 

Texas. . .. 

60 






80 



70 

72 

56 

- • ‘ 

Vermont. 

GO 









* * 

Virginia. . 

60 









70 


56 

50 

Wash. . . . 

GO 










W. Va.. 

60 



80 





56 




. . • 

Wisconsin 

GO 












50 















* Not defined. 


a Corn in ear, 70 pounds until Dec. 

1 next after grown; 68 pounds 
thereafter. 

6 In the cob. 
c I ndian corn in ear. 
d Corn in ear, from Nov. 1 to May 1, 
following, 70 pounds; 68 pounds 
from May 1 to Nov. 1. 


e Indian-corn meal. 

/ Cracked corn. 

ff Standard weight in borough of 
Greensburg. 

h Standard weight bushel corn meal, 
bolted or unbolted, 48 pounds. 
i Red and white. 

3 Green unshelled corn, 100 pounds. 










































































































MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


411 


LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— (Continued). 


$-a 
•3 a> 

1“ 

O 


"3 ® 

o 

O 


u. s.. .. 

Alabama. 

Arkansas. 

California 

Colorado. 

Conn. 

Delaware 
Florida. 
Georgia. . 
Hawaii. ,. 
Idaho. . . 
Illinois. . . 
Indiana. . 
Iowa, 
Kansas.. . 
Kentucky 
Maine. .. . 

Mass. 

Michigan. 
Minnesota 
Mississippi 
Missouri. . 
Montana. 
Nebraska 
N, Jersey. 
New York 
N Car. . 

N. Dakota 

Ohio. 

Oklahoma 
Oregon. 
Penn .... 

R. Island. 

S. Car. . .. 
S, Dakota 
Tennessee 
Texas. . .. 
Vermont. 
Virginia. . 
Wash. . . 
W. Va.. . . 
Wisconsin 


44 


48 


44 


46 


46 


50 


48 


48 


48 


48 


Cottonseed. 


32 

33$ 


30 


T3 

© 

Is K 

S c 

c$ o 

2s 

^ o 

o30 

eg 


o . 

03 

■C 03 

gg 

£ c 
a-** 
D 


44 


46 


44 


30 


30 


44 


30 


32 


44 

(c) 


44 


30 


-e . 

a>^ 
03 "O 

X$ 

o3 ai 

S 

56 


56 


55 


56 


33 


56 

56 

56 


03 

M 

a 


a. 


30 


30 


55 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

55 

55 

55 

56 
56 
56 


56 


56 

56 

56 


56 

56 

56 

56 


40 


CQ 

a. 

S 

03 

w 


a 


a8 

8 

11 


40 a8 


48 


44 


44 


44 


44 


44 

44 


44 


44 


45 


45 

45 


45 


O 

a 

03 

■C • 

o3T3 
M « 

G ® 

w 


50 


50 


48 

48 


48 

48' 


52 

56 

56 

56 


56 

56 


556 


556 


56 

56 

56 


56 

56 


55 

56 * 
56* 


* Not defined. 


a Unwashed plastering hair, 8 
pounds; washed plastering hair, 
4 pounds. 


b Shelled, 
c Matured. 


Maize. 






























































































































412 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— (Continued). 


U S . 

Alabama. . . 
Arizona, , . 
Arkansas. ,. 
California.. . 
Colorado, , . 

Conn. 

Florida. 

Georgia. ,. . 
Hawaii. . . 
Idaho 
Illinois. 
Indiana. . . 

Iowa. 

Kansas. , . . 
Kentucky. . 

Maine. 

Maryland. .. 

Mass. 

Michigan. . 
Minnesota. . 
Mississippi. , 
Missouri. .. . 
Montana. . . 
Nebraska. .. 
N. Hamp. . . 
N Jersey. . 
New York. . 

N. Car. 

N. Dakota. . 
Ohio. . . . 
Oklahoma. . 
Oregon. ... . 
Penn. 

R. Island. . . 

S. Dakota. 
Tennessee 
Texas. . . . 
"Vermont. . . 
Virginia. . . . 
Washington. 
W. Virginia. 
Wisconsin. . 


Lime. 


s 

p 


80 

70 


SO 


70 

70 

80 


70 


80 

70 

80 


70 

80 

(ff) 


70 


T3 

s « 

a £ 

gp 

p 


80 


80 


80 

35 


c3 


34 


38 

635 

32 


80 33 

... I 38 
80 ) 30 
80 ] 30 


80 


34 


38 


80 | 23 


80 34 


50 


50 


50 

50 

50 

50 


50 

48 

50 

50 

50 


50 

50 


50 


650 

50 

50 ‘ 


50 


Ci 

o 


32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

36 

32 

32 

32 

32 

c32 

e32 

26 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

30 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

30 

32 

32 

32 


Onions. 


c 

.2 

’S 

O 


57 


52 

55 

52 


50 
50 
52 
i 56 
57 
52 
57 


57 


57 

52 

56 

57 


57 

48 

57 

57 

57 

52 


52 

54 

52 

57 

57 

57 

57 


57 

57 


Oi 

m 

a 

.2 

'S 

O 


cZ 36 


/ 28 


25 


28 


23 


O 

L T* 
ci tv 
_G o 
utt 


14 


14 


14 

14 


14 


*0 
o> o 
M a; 


33 

32 


33 


36 

32 


14 


14 


33 


34 


a 

'a 

TO 

Li 

Oh 


45 


55 


45 


42 


44 

50 


50 


50 


44 


Peaches. 


ci 

O’ 

Oh 


a54 


48 


48 


48 


48 


/ 50 
50 


* Not defined. 


38 

33’ 


33 

33 

38 


39 


33 

28 

28 

33 

33 


33 


33 

33 


33 

28 ‘ 

33’ 

26' 

28 


40 

28 

33 

33 


a Green peaches. 
b Malt rye. 
c Shelled. 

d Bottom onion sets. 
e Strike measure. 

1 Top onion sets. 


g Slaked lime, 40 pounds. 
h German Missouri and Tennessee 
millet seed. 
i Matured onions. 
j Button onion sets, 32 pounds. 

I Matured. 


Peeled. 










































































































MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 413 


LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— {Continued). 



Dried Peaches, 
Unpeeled. 

j Peanuts. 

Pears.* 

Pease. 

Potatoes. 

Red Top. 

Rough Rice. 

Rice Corn. 

Rutabagas. 

| Ground Pease. 

. 

Green Pease, 

Unshelled. 

Pease.* 

Potatoes.* 

Sweet 

Potatoes. 

White 

Potatoes; 

u. s. 






GO 

GO 






< 

Alabama. 

33 





CO 


55 

60 





Arkansas. 

33 





CO 

CO 

50 

14 




Colorado. 







60 







Conn. 

33 





60 

60 

54 

60 


45 


60 

D. C. 






60 

.... 

. . . 

Florida. .. 


22 

60 





60 

60 





Georgia. . 

33 



25 


60 


55 

60 


43 



Idaho. , .. 

2S 


a 45 




60 







Illinois. . . 

33 







50 

CO 





Indiana . 

33 






60 

55 






Iowa. 

33 






60 

46 






Kansas. .. 

33 






60 

50 




56 


Kentucky 




24 


60 

60 

55 

60 




Maine. .. . 






60 

60 






60 

Maryland. 






56 






Mass .... 






60 

60 

54 



45 



Michigan 






60 


56 

60 

614 




Minnesota 






60 


55 

60 

614 



52 

Mississippi 




24 


CO 


60 

60 




Missouri. . 



48 


56 

c60 


56 

60 

614 



50 

Montana. 



45 



60 

60 






Nebraska 






60 


50 

60 





N. Hamp 






GO 

60 







N. Jersey. 






60 


54 

60 





New York 






60 


54 

60 


45 



N Car . 


22 




60 





44 



N. Dakota 






60 


46 

60 





Ohio .... 






60 


50 

CO 





Oklahoma 






60 


46 

60 





Oregon .. 



45 




60 







Penn. 







56 







R. Island. 






c60 


54 

60 





S Dakota 






60 


46 

60 





Tennessee 


23 

d56 


30 

60 


50 

60 

614 




Texas 




* 




55 

60 





Vermont. 






ro 

60 







Virginia. . 

32 

22 




e60 


56 

56 

12 




Wash. . . . 



a 45 




60 







W Va. . . 







60 







Wisconsin 






60 


54 

60 


45 

. .. 

56 


* Not defined. 

a Green. d Matured nears, 56 pounds; dried 

b Seed pears. 26 pounds. 

c Including split pease. € Black-eyed pease. 


t 


i 


































































































































414 


MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 


LEGAL HEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— {Continued) 


U. S. . 

Alabama. . . 
Arizona. . . . 
Arkansas... 
California.. . 
Colorado. . . 

Conn. 

Delaware. . 
Florida. ... 
Georgia. . . . 

Hawaii. 

Idaho. ..... 

Illinois. 

Indiana. . .. 

Iowa.. 

Kansas. 

Kentucky. . 
Louisiana.. . 

Maine. 

Maryland. .. 
Mass. , 
Michigan. .. 
Minnesota. 
Mississippi. 
Missouri. .. 
Montana. . . 
Nebraska. .-. 
N. Hamp. . . 
N. Jersey. . . 
New York. . 
N. Carolina. 
N Dakota. . 

Ohio. 

Oklahoma. 
Oregon. . ,.. 

Penn. 

R. Island. . 
S Dakota . . 
Tennessee. . 
Texas .... 
Vermont . 
Virginia 
Washington. 
W. Virginia 
Wisconsin, . 


50 


50 


50 


50 


50 


50 


50 


53 

56 

56 

53 

54 
56 
56 


56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

50 


56 

55 

55 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
50 
53 
56 
56 
53 
56 
53 
53 
56 
53 
56 
53 

55 

56 
56 
56 
53 


Salt. 





Turnips. 

* 

"5 

m 

"3 

cc 

© 

tj 

cc 

c 

X 

u 

d 

C 

o 1 

* 

on 

L 

5 

c 

© 

SC 

M 

u 

O i 

tc ; 

71 

O 

c 

e 

Timothy Seed. 

* 

(C 

C. 

s-i 

2 

£-1 

ki 

5“ 

o 

















55 










50 




50 


60 

57 








80 






-15 




50 

70 

20 




50 






60 




56 



54 






45 

55 



















55 

50 




45 

55 


50 




45 

55 


50 

50 




a 30 


45 





5G 


45 

55 


50 

55 




45 

60 








CO 

70 






50 




CO 




50 

70 

20 


45 



56 



45 

5S 





57 


45 



50 




42 


45 

55 


50 




42 

45 

45 

42 

50 




45 

50 

50 




30 


45 

55 




















56 

70 

20 



45 








£0 






45 

60 






56 

45 

60 


80 





42 

CO 









c 6° 

85 








50 

70 

20 


56 

45 

50 


SO 


42 

60 


50 




50 

56 

45 

50 


50 




DO 

45 

55 


70 






45 

GO 


50 







55 















45 

• 



50 

70 

20 



45 

42 







* Not defined. 

, e Ground salt, 70 pounds. 


a Sorghum saccharatum seed. 
b India wheat, 46 pounds. 


ggggggSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS: SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS Wheat. 


































































































































RULES RELATIVE TO THE CIRCLE. 


415 


RULES RELATIVE TO THE CIRCLE. 

To Find Circumference: 

Multiply diameter by 3.1416, 
or divide “ ' “ 0.3183. 

To Find Diameter: 

Multiply circumference by 0.3183, 
or divide “ “ 3.1416. 

To Find Radius: 

Multiply circumference by 0.15915, 
or divide “ “ 6.28318. 

To Find Side of an Inscribed Square: 

Multiply diameter by 0.7071, 

or multiply circumference by 0.2251 , 

“ divide “ “ 4.4428. . 

To Find Side of an Equal Square: 

Multiply diameter by 0.SS62, 

or divide “ “ 1.1284, 

“ multiply circumference by 0.2821, 

“ divide “ “ 3.545. 

Square. 

A side multiplied by 1.4142 equal diameter of its circum¬ 
scribing circle. 

A side multiplied by 4.443 equal circumference of its circum¬ 
scribing circle. 

A side multiplied by 1.128 equal diameter of an equal circle. 
A side multiplied by 3.547 equal circumference of an equal 
circle. 

Square inches multiplied by 1.273 equal circle inches of aD 
equal circle. 

To Find the Area of a Circle: 

Multiply circumference by one-quarter of the diametef, 
or multiply the square of diameter by 0.7854, 

“ “ “ “ circumference “ 0.07958, 

“ « « “ “ i diameter “ 3.1416. 


416 


RULES RELATIVE TO THE CIRCLE. 


To Find the Surface of a Sphere or Globe: 

Multiply the diameter by the circumference, 
or multiply the square of diameter by 3.1416, 

“ “ four times the square of radius by 3.1416. 

To Find the Weight of Brass and Copper Sheets, Rods, 
and Bars: 

Ascertain the number of cubic inches in piece and multiply 
same by weight per cubic inch. 

» Brass, 0.2972. 

Copper, 0.3212. 

Or multiply the length by the breadth (in feet) and product 
by weight in pounds per square foot. 

TABLE TO FIND AREAS , ETC., OF POLYGONS. 


Name of 
Polygon, 

No.of 

Sides. 

A 

Area. 

B 

Radius 
of Cir¬ 
cum¬ 
scribed 
Circle. 

C 

Length 
of the 
Side. 

D 

Radius 
of In¬ 
scribed 
Circle. 

Angle 

Con¬ 

tained 

between 

Two 

Sides, 

Triangle. 

3 

0.433013 

0.5773 

1.732 

0 2887 

60° 

Tetragon. 

4 

1 

0.7071 

1.4142 

0.5 

90° 

Pentagon. ...... 

5 

1.720477 

0.8506 

1 1756 

0.6882 

108° 

Hexagon...... 

6 

2.598076 

1 

1 

0.866 

120° 

Heptagon. 

7 

3.633912 

1.1524 

0.8677 

1 0383 

128.57° 

Octagon . 

8 

4.828427 

1.3066 

0.7653 

1.2071 

135° 

Nonagon.. 

9 

6 181824 

1.4619 

0.684 

1.3737 

140° 

Decagon. 

10 

7.694209 

1.618 

0 618 

1 5383 

144° 

Undecagon. . . . 

11 

9 36564 

1.7747 

0 5634 

1.7028 

147 27° 

Dodecagon.. . 

12 

11.196152 

1.9319 

0 5176 

1.866 

150° 


To find the area of a regular polygon when the length of 
one side is given: Multiply the square of the side by the mul¬ 
tiplier opposite to the name of the polygon in column A of the 
following table. 

To compute the radius of a circumscribing circle when the 
length of one side is given: Multiply the length of a side of the 
polygon by the number in column B. 

To compute the length of a side of a polygon that is contained 
in a given circle when the radius of the circle is given: Multiply 
the radius of the circle by the number opposite the name of the 
desired polygon in column C. 

To compute the radius of a circle that can be inscribed in a 
given polygon when the length of a side is given: Multiply the 
length of a side of the polygon by the number opposite the 
name of the polygon in column D. 























MULTIPLIERS FOR CALCULATIONS. 


417 


MULTIPLIERS FOR FACILITATING CALCULATIONS. 

Cubic inchesX.4103= lbs. of lead. 

Cubic inchesX.3225= lbs. of copper. 

Cubic inches X .328 = lbs. of cast copper. 

Cubic inches X .268 = lbs. of tin. 

Cubic inches X .304 =lbs. of brass. 

Cubic inches X .253 = lbs. of zinc. 

Cubic inches X .260 = lbs. of cast iron. 

Cubic inches X .282 = lbs. of wrought iron. 

Cubic inches X .004329= U. S. gallons. 

Cubic inches X .00058 = cubic feet. 

Cubic inches X .000466= U. S. bushel. 

Cubic inches of water X .03617= lbs. avoir. 

One cubic inch of water= .0361 lb. 

Cubic feet X .03704= cubic yards. 

Cubic feet X .8036 = U. S. bushel. 

Cubic feet X 7.48= U. S. gallons. 

Cubic feet of water X 62.42= lbs. avoir. 

One cubic foot of water= 62.42 lbs. avoir. 

1.6 cubic feet of water=l cwt. (100). 

32.04 cubic feet of water=l ton (2000). 

1.8 cubic feet of water = 1 cwt. (112). 

35.88 cubic feet of water=l ton (2240), 

Square inches X .007 = square feet. 

Square feetX.l 11 = square yards. 

Circular inches X .00546= square feet. 

183.346 circular inches=l square foot. 

Cylindrical inches X .0004546= cubic feet. 

Cylindrical inches X .0034= U. S. gallons. 

Cylindrical inch s of waterX.02842= lbs. avoir* 

Cylindrical feet of waterX49.1 = lbs. avoir. 

Cylindrical feet X 5.874= U. S. gallons. 

One cylindrical inch of water= .0284 lb. 

One cylindrical foot of water = 49.10 lbs. 

2200 cylindrical inches= 1 cubic foot. 

U. S. bushelX.0495 = cubic yards. 

, “ “ X 1.2446 = “ feet. 

« « X 2150.42= “ inches. 


418 


MULTIPLIERS FOR CALCULATIONS. 


U. S. gallonsX.13367= cubic feet. 

U. S. gallon liquid measure X 231 = cubic inches. 
13.44 U. S. gal. of water= 1 cwt. (112). 

L68.8 “ “ “ “ = 1 ton (2240). 

12 “ “ “ “ =1 cwt. (100). 

240 “ " " “ k -1 ton (2000). 

One gallon of water =8.34 lbs. 

One gallon= .13368056 cubic foot. 

Lbs. avoirdupois X .009 = cwt. (112). 


u u 

X.00045= 

tons (2240). 

One pound of water =27.7 cubic inches. 

One pound of 

water=.16 cubic foot. 

Lineal feet 

X.00019 

= miles. 

“ yards 

X .0006 

_ u 

‘ links 

X.22 

= yards. 

(< <. 

X .66 

= feet. 

“ feet 

X15 

= links. 

Square yards 

X.0002067 

= acres. 

Acres 

X 4840 

= square yards. 


Width in chains X 8. = acres per mile. 

Velocity in feet per second X 68= miles per hour. 

Velocity in feet per secondX.60= feet per minute. 

Velocity in feet per second X.20= yards per minute. 

Inches per second X 5= feet per minute. 

Inches per second X 300=feet per hour. 

Head of water in feet= pressure of water in lbs. per square foot 
X.016. 


Head in feetX.434=lbs. per square inch. 

Pounds per square inch X 2.3=head in feet. 

Pressure of water in lbs. per square foot=head in feet X62.32. 
One pound pressure of water= 2.042-inch column of mercury. 
Column of water 12 inches high, 1 inch diameter= .341 lb. 

One atmosphere =2116.3 lbs. per square foot. 

One atmosphere= 33.947 feet of water at 62 degrees Fahrenheit. 
One circular mill is the area of a circle .001 inch in diameter. 
1,000,000 circular mills=one circular inch. 


AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SIDES OF SQUARES. 419 


AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SIDES OF SQUARES OF SAME AREA. 
(Diameter multiplied by .8862 equals sides of an equal square.) 


Diameter of Circle | 
in Inches. 

Area of Circle in 
Square Inches. 

Sides of Square 
of Same Area in 
Square Inches. 

Diameter of Circle 
in Inches. 

Area of Circle in 

Square Inches. 

Sides of Square 

of Same Area in 

Square Inches. 

Diameter of Circle 

in Inches. 

Area of Circle in 

Square Inches. 

Sides of Square 

of Same Area in 

Square Inches. 

f 

.785 

.89 

21 

346.36 

18.61 

41 

1320.26 

36.34 

n 

1.767 

1.33 

21! 

363.05 

19.05 

41! 

1352.66 

36.78 

2 

3.142 

1.77 

22 

380.13 

19.50 

42 

1385.45 

37.22 

2! 

4.909 

2.22 

22J 

397.61 

19.94 

42! 

1418.63 

37.66 

3 

7.069 

2.66 

23 

415.48 

20.38 

43 

1452.20 

38.11 

3i 

9.621 

3.10 

23i 

433.74 

20.83 

43! 

1486.17 

38.55 

4 

12.566 

3.54 

3.99 

24 

452.39 

21.27 

44 

1520.53 

38.99 

4* 

15.904 

24! 

471.44 

21.71 

44! 

1555.29 

39.44 

5 

19.635 

4.43 

25 

490.88 

22.16 

45 

1590.43 

39.88 

5! 

23.758 

4.87 

25! 

510.7i 

22.60 

45! 

1625.97 

40.32 

6 

28.274 

5.32 

26 

530.93 

23.04 

46 

1661.91 

40.77 

6! 

33.183 

5.76 

26i 

551.55 

23.49 

46! 

1698.23 

41.21 

7 

38.485 

6.20 

27 

572.56 

23.93 

47 

1734.95 

41.65 

7! 

44.179 

6.65 

27i 

593.96 

24.37 

47! 

1772.06 

42.10 

8 

50.266 

7.09 

28 

615.75 

24.81 

48 

1809.56 

42.58 

82 

56.745 

7.53 

28J 

637.94 

25.26 

48! 

1847.46 

42.98 

9 

63.617 

7.98 

29 

660.52 

25.70 

49 

1885.75 

43.43 

n 

70.882 

8.42 

29! 

683.49 

26.14 

49! 

1924.43 

43.87 

10 

78.540 

8.86 

30 

706.86 

26.59 

50 

1963.50 

44.31 

ioi 

88.590 

9.30 

30! 

730.62 

27.03 

50! 

2002.97 

44.75 

11 

95.03 

9.75 

31 

754.77 

27.47 

51 

2042.83 

45.20 

Hi 

103.87 

10.19 

31| 

779.31 

27.92 

51! 

2083 08 

45.64 

12 

113.10 

10.63 

32 

804125 

28.36 

52 

2123.72 

46.08 

12i 

122.72 

11.08 

32! 

829.58 

28.80 

52! 

2164.76 

46.53 

13 

132.73 

11.52 

33 

■ 855.30 

29.25 

53 

2206.19 

46.97 

13i 

143.14 

11.96 

33! 

881.41 

29.69 

53! 

2248.01 

47.41 

14 

153.94 

.12.41 

34 

907.92 

30.13 

54 

2290.23 

47.86 

14i 

165.13 

12.85 

34! 

934.82 

30.57 

54! 

2332.83 

48.30 

15 

176.72 

13.29 

35 

962.11 

31.02 

55 

2375.83 

48.74 

15i 

188.69 

13.74 

35! 

989.80 

31.46 

55! 

2419.23 

49.19 

16 

201.06 

14.18 

36 

1017.88 

31.90 

56 

2463.01 

49.63 

16i 

213.83 

14.62 

36! 

1046.35 

32.35 

56! 

2507.19 

50.07 

17 

226.98 

15.07 

37 

1075.21 

32.79 

57 

2551.76 

50.51 

17i 

240.53 

15.51 

37! 

1104.47 

33.23 

57! 

2596.73 

50.96 

18 

254.47 

15.95 

38 

1134.12 

33.68 

58 

2642.09 

51.40 

18i 

268.80 

16.40 

38! 

1164.16 

34.12 

58! 

2687.84 

51.84 

19 

283.53 

16.84 

39 

1194.59 

34.56 

59 

2733.89 

52.29 

19i 

298.65 

17.28 

39! 

1225.42 

35.01 

59! 

2780.51 

52.73 

20 

20 £ 

314.16 

330.08 

17.72 

18.17 

40 

40! 

1256.64 

1288.25 

35.45 

35.89 

60 

2827.74 

53.17 
























420 DECIMALS OF A FOOT FOR 64ths OF AN INCH. 
DECIMALS OF A FOOT FOR EACH & OF AN INCH. 


Inch. 

0" 

1" 

2" 

3" 

4" 

5" 

G" 

7" 

8" 

9" 

10" 

11" 

0 

0 

.0833 

.1667 

.2500 

.3333 

.4167 

.5000 

.5833 

.6667 

.7500 

.8333 

.9167 

A 

.0013 

.0846 

.1680 

.2513 

.3346 

.4180 

.5013 

.5846 

.6680 

.7513 

.8346 

.9180 

"fa 

.0026 

.0859 

.1693 

.2526 

.3359 

.4193 

.5026 

.5859 

.6693 

.7526 

.8359 

.9193 

A 

.0039 

.0872 

.1706 

.2539 

.3372 

.4206 

.5039 

.5872 

.6706 

.7539 

.8372 

.9206 

A 

.0052 

.0885 

.1719 

.2552 

.3385 

.4219 

.5052 

.5885 

.6719 

.7552 

.8385 

.9219 

& 

.0065 

.0898 

.1732 

.2565 

.3398 

.4232 

.5065 

.5898 

.6732 

.7565 

.8398 

.9232 

A 

.0078 

.0911 

.1745 

.2578 

.3411 

.4245 

.5078 

.5911 

.6745 

.7578 

.8411 

.9245 

A 

.0091 

.0924 

.1758 

.2591 

.3424 

.4258 

.5091 

.5924 

.6758 

.7591 

.8424 

.9258 

* 

.0104 

.0937 

.1771 

.2604 

.3437 

.4271 

.5104 

..5937 

.6771 

.7604 

.8437 

.9271 

A 

.0117 

.0951 

.1784 

.2617 

.3451 

.4284 

.5117 

.5951 

.6784 

.7617 

.8451 

.9284 

* 

.0130 

.0964 

.1797 

.2630 

.3464 

.4297 

.5130 

.5964 

.6797 

.7630 

.8464 

.9297 


.0143 

.0977 

.1810 

.2643 

.3477 

.4310 

.5143 

.5977 

.6810 

.7643 

.8477 

.9310 

A 

.0156 

.0990 

.1823 

.2656 

.3490 

.4323 

.5156 

.5990 

.6823 

.7656 

.8490 

.9323 

« 

.0169 

.1003 

.1836 

.2669 

.3503 

.4336 

.5169 

.6003 

.6836 

.7669 

.8503 

.9336 

A 

.0182 

.1016 

.1849 

.2682 

1.1516 

.4349 .5182 

.6016 

.6849 

.7682 

.8516 

.9349 

If 

.0195 

.1029 

.1862 

.2695 

.3529 

.4362 

1.5195 

.6029 

.6862 

.7695 

.8529 

.9362 

i 

.0208 

.1042 

.1875 

.2708 

.3542 

.4375 

j.5208 

.6042 

.6875 

.7708 

.8542 

.9375 

H 

.0221 

.1055 

.1888 

.2721 

.3555 

.4388 

.5221 

.6055 

.6888 

.7721 

.8555 

.9388 


.0234 

.1068 

.1901 

.2734 

.3568 

.4401 

.5234 

.6068 

.6901 

.7734 

.8568 

.9401 


.0247 

.1081 

.1914 

.2747 

.3581 

.4414 

.5247 

.6081 

.6914 

.7747 

.8581 

.9414 

A 

.0260 

.1094 

.1927 

.2760 

.3594 

.4427 

.5260 

.6094 

.6927 

.7760 

.8594 

.9427 

» 

.0273 

.1107 

.1940 

.2773 

.3607 

.4440 

.5273 

.6107 

.6940 

.7773 

.8607 

.9440 

g~2 

.0286 

.1120 

.1953 

.2786 

.3620 

.4453 

.5286 

.6120 

.6953 

.7786 

.8620 

.9453 


.0299 

.1133 

.1966 

..2799 

.3633 

.4466 

.5299 

.6133 

.6966 

.7799 

.8633 

.9466 

i 

.0312 

.1146 

.1979 

.2812 

.3646 

.4479 

.5312 

.6146 

.6979 

.7812 

.8646 

.9479 

M 

.0326 

.1159 

.1992 

.2826 

.3659 

.4492 

.5326 

.6159 

.6992 

.7826 

.8659 

.9492 

tt 

.0339 

.1172 

.2005 

.2839 

.3672 

.4505 

.5339 

.6172 

.7105 

.7839 

.8672 

.9505 

ti 

.0352 

.1185 

.2018 

.2852 

.3685 

.4518 

.5352 .6185 

.7018 

.7852 

.8685 

.9518 

fe 

.0365 

.l 1 8 

.2031 

.2865 

.3698 

.4531 

.5365^.6198 

.7031 

.7865 

.8698 

.9531 

Jf 

.0378 

.1211 

.2044 

.2878 

.3711 

.4544 

.5378 .6211 

.7044 

.7878 

.8711 

.9544 

If 

.0391 

.1224 

.2057 

.2891 

.3724 

.4557 

.5391 

.6224 

.7057 

.7891 

.8724 

.9557 

§4 

.0404 

.1237 

.2070 

.2904 

.3737 

.4570 

.5404 

.6237 .7070 

.7904 

.8737 

.9570 

£ 

.0417 

.1250 

.2083 

.2917 

.3750 

.4583 

.5417 

.6250,-7083 

.7917 

.8750 

.9583 

II 

.0430 

.1263 

.2096 

.2930 

.3763 

.4596 

.5430 

.6263 -7096 

.7930 

.8763 

.9596 


.0443 

.1276 

.2109 

.2943 

.3776 

.4609 

.5443 

.6276 -7109 

.7943 

.8776 

.9609 

if 

.0456 

.1289 

.2122 

.2956 

.3789 

.4622 

.5456 

.6289 .7122 

.7956 

.8789 

.9622 

a 

.0469 

.1302 

.2135 

.2969 

.3802 

.4635 

.5469 

.6302 

.7135 

.7969 

.8802 

.9635 

H 

.0482 

.1315 

.2148 

.2982 

.3815 

.4648 

.5482 

.6315 

.7148 

.7982 

.8815 

.9648 

S 

.0495 

.1328 

.2161 

.2995 

.3828 

.4661 

.5495 

.6328 

.7161 

.7995 

.8828 

.9661 

if 

.0508 

.1341 

.2174 

.3008 

.3841 

.4674 

.5508 

.6341 

.7174 

.8008 

8841 

.9674 

t 

.0521 

.1354 

.2188 

.3021 

.3854 

.4688 

.5521 

.6354 

.7188 

.8021 

.8854 

.9688 

u 

.0534 

.1367 

.2201 

.3034 

.3867 

.4701 

.5534 

.6367 

.7201 

.8034 

.8867 

.9701 

^2 

.0547 

.1380 

.2214 

.3047 

.3880 

.4714 

.5547 

.6380 

.7214 

.8047 

.8880 

.9714 

if 

.0560 

.1393 

.2227 

.3060 

.3893 

.4727 

.5560 

.6393 

.7227 

.8060 

.8893 

9727 

fe 

.0573 

.1406 

.2240 

.3073 

.3906 

.4740 

.5573 

.6406 

.7240 

.8073 

.8906 

9740 

H 

.0586 

.1419 

.2253 

.3086 

.3919 

.4753 

5586 

6419 

.7253 

8086 

8919 

9753 

M 

.0599 

.1432 

.2266 

.3099 

.3932 

.4766 

.5599 

6432 

.7266 

8099 

8932 

9766 

if 

.0612 

.1445 

.2279 

.3112 

.3945 

.4779 

5612 

6445 

7279 

8112 

8945 

9779 

i 

.0625 

.1458 

.2292 

.3125 

.3958 

.4792 

5625 

6458 

7292 

8125 

8958].9792 













































DECIMALS OF A FOOT FOR G4ths OF AN INCH. 421 


DECIMALS OF A FOOT FOR EACH A OF AN INCH— {Continued). 


Inch. 

0" 

1 " 

2" 

3" 

4" 

D 

6" 

7" 

8" 

9" 

10” 

11” 

H 

.0638 

.1471 

.2305 

.3138 

.3971 

.4805 

.5638 

.6471 

.7305 

8138 

.8971 

.9805 

M 

.0651 

.1484 

.2318 

.3151 

.3984 

.4818 

.5651 

.6484 

.7318 

8151 

.8984 

.9818 

U 

.0664 

.1497 

.2331 

.3164 

.3997 

.4831 

.5664 

.6497 

.7331 

.8164 

.8997 

.9831 

ft 

.0677 

.1510 

.2344 

.3177 

.4010 

.4344 

.5677 

.6510 

.7344 

8177 

9010 

.9844 

ft 

.0690 

.1523 

.2357 

.3190 

.4023 

.4857 

.5690 

.6523 

.7357 

.8190 

.9023 

.9857 


.0703 

.1536 

.2370 

.3203 

.4036 

.4870 

.5703 

.6536 

.7370 

.8203 

.9036 

.9870 

ft 

.0716 

.1549 

.2383 

.3216 

.4049 

.4883 

.5716 

.6549 

.7383 

.8216 

.9049 

.9883 

£ 

.0729 

.1562 

.2396 

.3229 

.4062 

.4896 

.5729 

.6562 

.7396 

.8229 

.9062 

.9898 

ft 

.0742 

.1576 

.2409 

.3242 

.4076 

.4909 

.5742 

.6576 

.7409 

.8242 

.9076 

.9909 


.0755 

.1589 

.2422 

.3255 

.4089 

.4922 

.5755 

.6589 

.7422 

8255 

.9089 

.9922 


.0768 

.1602 

.2435 

.3268 

.4102 

.4935 

.5768 

.6602 

.7435 

.8268 

.9102 

.9935 

« 

.0781 

.1615 

.2448 

.3281 

.4115 

.4948 

.5781 

.6615 

.7448 

.8281 

.9115 

.9948 


.0794 

.1628 

.2461 

.3294 

.4128 

.4961 

.5794 

.6628 

.7461 

.8294 

.9128 

.9961 


.0807 

.1641 

.2474 

.3307 

.4141 

.4974 

.5S07 

.6641 

.7474 

.8307 

.9141 

.9974 

6~f 

i 

.0820 

.1654 

.2487 

.3320 

.4154 

.4987 

.5820 

.6654 

.7487 

.8320 

.9154 

.9987 

1.0000 


DECIMALS OF AN INCH FOR EACH ATH. 


Ads. 

Aths. 

Decimal. 

Frac¬ 

tion. 

Ads- 

Aths. 

Decimal. 

Frac¬ 

tion. 


1 

.015625 



33 

.515625 


1 

2 

.03125 


17 

34 

.53125 



3 

.046875 



35 

.546875 


2 

4 

.0625 

1 

16 

18 

36 

.5625 

A 


5 

.078125 



37 

.578125 


3 

6 

.09375 


19 

38 

. 59375 



7 

.109375 



39 

.609375 

£ 

4 

8 

.125 

£ 

20 

40 

.625 


9 

.140625 



41 

.640625 


5 

10 

.15625 


21 

42 

.65625 



11 

.171875 



43 

.671875 

ft 

6 

12 

.1875 

A 

22 

44 

.6875 


13 

.293125 



45 

703125 


7 

14 

.21875 


23 

46 

.71875 



15 

.234375 



47 

.734375 

JL 

4 

8 

16 

.25 

£ 

24 

48 

.75 


17 

.265625 



49 

.765625 


9 

IS 

.28125 


25 

50 

. 78K25 



19 

.296S75 



51 

.796S75 

ft 

10 

20 

.3125 

5 

16 

23 

52 

.8125 


21 

.32S125 



53 

.828125 


11 

22 

.34375 


27 

54 

.84375 


23 

.359375 



55 

.859375 

i 

12 

24 

.375 

1 

28 

56 

.875 


25 

.390625 



57 

.890625 


13 

26 

.40625 


29 

58 

.90625 


27 

.421875 



59 

921875 

ft 

14 

28 

.4375 

A 

30 

60 

.9375 


29 

.453125 



61 

.953125 


15 

30 

.46875 


31 

62 

.96875 


31 

.484375 



63 

.9S4375 


16 

32 

.5 

£ 

32 

64 

1. 

1 






































422 


FIRST AID TO THE INJURED, 


FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 

USEFUL SUGGESTIONS IN CASES OF ACCIDENTS TO MECHANICS. 

Electric Shock. —The patient should be immediately placed 
in position for artificial respiration, preferably on a table with 
a cushion under his shoulders to elevate them slightly. Then 
bring his arms down until his hands rest on his chest, grasp 
his wrists and press firmly against the lower walls of the chest 
for a few seconds, then raise the arms outward and upward 
until the hands meet beyond the head, drawing firmly upward 
for a few seconds; repeat this procedure ten or fifteen times a 
minute. 

Bleeding. —If blood spurts from wound, an artery is divided; 
bind limb tightly above with India-rubber tubing, strap, hand¬ 
kerchief, or scarf, or bend the limb forcibly at next joint above 
wound, or press flat hand or stone where blood is flowing. If 
blood flows freely, but does not spurt, a vein is divided; then 
apply same measures as in case of wounded artery, but belovv 
the wound. If scalp is wounded make a pad of cloth or waste, 
and bandage very tightly over wound with folded pocket- 
handkerchief. 

Burns and Scalds. —Apply lint, cotton, wool, or waste soaked 
in oil and lime-water, and bind the same on with handkerchief. 
If necessary to remove clothes cut them off by running knife 
or scissors along seams. 

Broken Leg. —Pull on leg steadily and firmly until it is of 
same length as sound one. Roll up a coat or empty sack into 
form of a cushion, carefully place leg upon it, then bind the 
two together with scarfs or handkerchiefs. Do not lift patient 
from the ground until stretcher is close at hand. Take great 
pains, by careful lifting, to prevent broken bone coming through 
skin. 

Broken Thigh.— Take hold of ankle and, by steady traction, 
pull limb to same length as sound one; another person must then 
tie knees together, and afterward the ankles. Both limbs should 
then be laid over a sack of straw, or folded coat, so as to bend 
the knees. Patient should on no account be moved until 
stretcher or cart is close at hand. 


A FEW ODDS AND ENDS. 


423 


Broken Arm. —Pull arm to length of sound one. Apply two 
splints, one outside and the other inside, binding them firmly 
on with pocket-handkerchiefs. The best splints are made by 
folding newspapers to necessary length, binding them above 
and below seat of Uacture; anything hard and light, of suitable 
size, would act equally well; for instance, wood, pasteboard, 
twigs, leather, etc. 


A FEW ODDS AND ENDS FOR THE NOON-HOUR. 

A Very Deceptive Problem. —Cut a piece of paper 8 inches 
square, containing 64 square inches, to fill a space 5X13 inches 
and containing 65 square inches. 

k-8-- * 




Out the square piece of paper as shown by Fig. 177 and put 
together as shown by Fig. 178, it will then measure 5X 13 inches, 
but if the sides of the 13-inch figure are kept straight there 












424 


A FEW ODDS AND ENDS. 


will be an opening in the centre as shown. This explains the 
extra inch. 

Which line is the longer, the horizontal or the perpendic¬ 
ular in Fig. 179? Speak quick. 


Fig* 179. 

To Cut a Block 12x12 Inches to Fill a Hole 9 X16 Inches, 
—Cut as shown by Fig. 180 and put together as shown by Fig, 
181. 



Fig. 180. 


Fig. 181. 


Which is the greater distance, A to B or B to C, Fig. 182? 






















A FEW ODDS AND ENDS. 


425 


Draw Fig. 183 without lifting the point of the pencil from 
the paper, making one continuous line. 



To Cut a Five-point Star at One Cut. —Take a square 
piece of paper and fold it as shown by Fig. 184, 1 to o, the first 



Fig. 184. 


fold is shown at 2, the second fold is shown at 3, etc., when 
folded cut on the line shown in 5. 

























426 


A FEW ODDS AND END& 


The Learing-ship Problem. —A ship at sea strikes a rock 
and knocks a hole in the bottom 8x15 inches. The ship's 
carpenter has a piece of board 10X12 inches. How can he 
cut it to fill the hole? 

Cut it as shown by Fig. 185, and put together as shown by 
Fig. 186. 




Fig. 185. 


Fig. 186. 


Which of the horizontal lines in Fig. 187 is the longer? 


> 



Fig. 187. 


Which of the lower diagonal lines in Fig. 188 is in line with 
the line above. 















A FEW ODDS AND ENDS. 


427 



Fig. 1SS. 

Are the horizontal lines in Fig. 189 parallel or not? 




Fig. 1S9. 

Which of the dotted lines in the cross is the longer? 



Fig. 190. 












428 


A FEW ODDS AND ENDS. 


Which of the circular sections is the longer, A or B? 

Are the heavy lines in Fig. 192 parallel? 

Fig. 193 shows a perfectly straight rule laid over a numbe? 
of concentric circular rings. As will be seen it gives the rule a 




Fig. 192. 



curved appearance. The circular rings also appear distorted, 
as the rings on one side of the rule do not appear to be a con¬ 
tinuation of those on the other side, but this can be proved by 
sighting along the lines. 













TOTIN' THE HOD, 


420 


TOTIN’ THE HOD. 

When I near some houses building 
With all sorts of stuff around— 

Lime and sand and bricks and lumber. 

Dumped upon the uneven ground; 

When I see the bed of mortar. 

With a pile all tempered right. 

When I see the man that’s tending. 

As he works with all his might — 

Fills the hod to overflowing. 

Stoops and shoulders it, and then 
Mounts the steps or climbs the ladder 
To supply the workingmen; 

I don’t think of town improvements. 

Nor of scanty, well-earned pelf. 

But there comes a kindly feeling — 

For I’ve “toted” some myself. 

Once again I hear the clinking 
Of the trowel on the wall. 

Once again I see the sunshine 
On the blinding whiteness fall 
Of the lime within the slush-box — 

Watch it crack and hear it boil; 

From its rattling detonations 
I can feel myself recoil. 

But all these — I pass them over. 

As I watch him with his hoe. 

See him load his empty hod up. 

Then into the building go. 

But it’s not of town improvements. 

Nor of scanty, well-earned pelf. 

It’s of former days I’m thinking. 

When I “toted” some myself. 

And I think, as I am looking. 

If I’d never helped to do 
Work that strained and stretched each muscle — 

Gave me soreness through and through — 

I had never felt this feeling. 

Kindly, thoughtful, for Fhe man 
Who with hod and hoe and shovel, 

Travels in improvement’s van. 

So you must not count me foolish. 

And perhaps a trifle odd. 

If I stop and hold some converse 
With the man beneath the hod. 

For you’d have a kindly feeling, 

Far removed from paltry pelf. 

Far removed from town improvements. 

If you’d “toted” some yourself. 

John L. Shroy, in Carpentry and Building, 


430 


WAGE-TABLE. 


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WAGE-TABLE. 


431 





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WAGE TABLE 


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436 


INDEX. 


Arc: PAGE 

to find centre of. 130 

radius of. 132 

to lay out. 131 

Arches: 

drop. 127 

Dutch. 135 

flat-pointed. 126 

four-centre. 12S 

French. 135 

Gothic..... 126 

Gothic elliptical. 125 

joints in Gothic... 137 

lancet Gothic. 126 

lintel. 136 

of are of circles. 128 

sim ilar to ellipse. 129 

skew-backs for jack. 120 

spacing joints of. 140 

three-centre. 127 

Tudor. 125 

voussoiis of elliptical. 136 

Architrave. 139 

Arch lintel, to lay out .. 136 

Area of— 

circle. 415 

circles.419 

globe...416 

polygons. 416 

squares. 419 

Artificial marble. 396 

Astragal. 139 

of doors. 3S5 

Avoirdupois weight. 400 


Barrel of cement, weight of. 72 

what a. will do. 223 

Barrel, to sling. 142 

Base, height of. 356 

Basement work. 166 

Base moulding, nailing of. 387 

Base of sidewalks. 160 

Beams, contents of concrete. 225 

table for designing. 90 

weight of concrete in. 94 

Bedsteads, size of. 385 

Bending of furring brackets. 295 

mouldings. 387 

Bevel of skew-backs. 120 

Billiard table, size of. 385 

"Blaw" sewer centres. 114 

Blocks, cutting walk into... 161 



















































INDEX- . 437 

PAGE 

Bk»ck 3 , nailing. 147 

size to cut walks..._. jg^ 

Block specifications. 266 

Board measure.. 

Boat spikes, size, etc. 375 

Bolts, to withdraw. 106 

weight of. 365 

Boom, to prevent sagging. 152 

Boulder-faced walls. 205 

Bowling alley, aze of. 335 

Boxes, contents of.. 

Bracket, ogee. 123 

Brass moulds. 260 

“Breaking” expanded metal. 150 

Bricks: 

cement. 209 

to lay. 232 

fire.391 

for laying circle walk. 393 

number in chimneys ..232 

in cisterns.234 

in flash tanks. 235 

in piers. 233 

in sewers.235 

in wall. 232 

Brickwork: m 

iron bond in. 393 

rules for chimney. 393 

sand-lime. 209 

size of paving.234 

strength of.. ..330 

to dean. 396 

to lay English cross-bond. 395 

to brighten old.396 

to set boilers. 230 

weight of. 330 

working strength of.351 

Bridge centering. 110 

Bridging partitions.3S6 

to nail.391 

Brightening brickwork .. 396 

Briquettes, mixing of. 2S 

ten si le strength. S 

Broken arm. 423 

leg.422 

stone aggregates. 45 

thigh. 422 

Building regulations for blocks. 276 

Buildings, height of.3S1 

Burns, etc.422 

Bushel, weight of. 407 

Butte, hand of... 356 























































438 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Caked cement. 81 

Callarino. 139 

Care of machine and moulds. 251 

of rope... 155 

Carton Pierre. 305 

Casting cement blocks.,. 260 

Cast-iron columns, strength of. 339 

Cavetto. 139 

Cellar-floor work. 166 

Cement: 

adulterations of. 37 

analysis of Portland. 5 

of Puzzolan. 39 

of Rosendale. 1 

of various brands. 39 

building blocks. 244 

cost of. 286 

expansion of. 34 

for stopping flaws. 387 

Keen’s. 297 

Lafarge. 297 

natural. 1-10 

non-staining. 34 

notes on. 69 

Portland. 4-11 

Puzzolan. 12 

sampling. 32 

silica. 16 

slag. 12 

soundness. 34 

specifications for natural. 2-17 

for Portland. 6-17 

for Puzzolan. 14 

standard specifications for. 9 

strength of briquettes. 3-8 

of mortar. 54 

tensile strength of natural. 43 

of Portland. 40 

tests of. 18 

used under w ater. 200 

weight of. 17 72 

what a barrel of wall do. 223 

Cement brick. 209 

building blocks. 244 

for stopping flaws in wood. .387 

Cement-lime mortar. \ . 76 

Cement marble. 39g 

Cement-rnilk paint. 218 

Cement mortar. 77 

Cements. 1 

Centre of circle, to find. 130 

Chairs, height of. 335 

Chair-rail, height of. 386 






















































INDEX. 


439 


PAGE 

Channels, strength of. 344 

Chemical analysis of granites. 333 

of limestones . .. 332 

of marbles. 329 

of sandstones... 331 

Chimneys: 

bricks required for. 232 

concrete. 208 

caps for. 208 

rules for ... 393 

Cincture. 139 

Cinder aggregate. 48 

Cinders: 

action of on iron. 199 

tests on concrete. 190 

weight of concrete. 171 

Circle heads, to work. 133 

Circular measure ..403 

Circle: 

area of... 419 

circumference of. 415 

drawing through three points... 129 

to draw arc of. 131 

to find area of. 415 

Cisterns: 

concrete. 206 

required for... 228 

bricks required for. 234 

gallons in. 378 

Classification of cements. 73 

of lime. 73 

of tests. 30 

Clay in concrete, strength of. 55 

in mortar, strength of.. 56 

Cleaning brickwork. 396 

stonework. 395 

windows. 384 

Clinkers, to crush. 147 

Closed-end flask casting. 263 

C oins , weight of... 404 

Cold-water paints .. 306 

Coloring blocks .. 250 

of walks. 164 

Color of cement .....*.... .. 5 

of concrete ...... ........ 218 

Columns: 

entasis of. 133 

names of parts .. 139 

strength of cast iron. 339 

wooden. 336 

to sling. 142 

working strength of. 354 


















































440 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Common ■weights, etc. 

Compartment casting. 262 

Composition of cement... 5 

of concretes. 67 

Concrete: 

adhesion of steel rods with. 203 

action of cinder on iron. 199 

of sea-water on. 204 

aggregate for. 45 

blocks, objections to..... —.. 246 

brick. 209 

chimneys .... .. 208 

chimney caps. 208 

cisterns.-. 206 

construction. 44 

contraction of. 193 

crushing clinkers for. 147 

strength of natural ............... 58 

depositing. 59 

different classes of... 69 

dry ... 49 

effect of cal on... 200 

efflorescence on. 201 

estimating. 225 

expansion of. 193 

fence posts. 210 

finishing exposed surface of ... 182 

fire resistance of. 186 

forms for.. 105 

furring on .... 148 

grades of. 220 

heavy centering for. 110 

lime .. 68 

materials for cubic yard. 66 

. measuring materials for .. 50 

water for. 152 

metal forms for. 114 

reinforcement for. £2 

mixing. 50 

nailing-blocks in. 147 

non-freezing. 218 

notes on. 69 

paint for .... 217 

painting. 219 

piles. 102 

placing around reinforcement... 95 

plastering on. 158 

porosity of. 193 

proportions cf. 52 

of reinforced. 65 

refractory . . . 193 

reinforced. 88 






















































INDEX 


441 


Concrete: 

rules for. 

for superintending .... 

sand for. 

sewer-pipe. 

sidewalk. 

sinks. 

'specifications for. 

steel protected by. 

steps. 

strength at different ages ... 

of.. 

table of beams and slabs ... 

tables for estimating.. 

to color .. 

used under water.. 

use of in freezing weather . , 

wash.. 

water for mixing ..._ .... 

waterproofing. 

weight of aggregates for .... 
of slabs and beams .. 

wet. 

Concrete blocks: 

aggregate for.. 

brass moulds for.... 

building regulations for . ... 

casting... 

coloring. 

curing. 

fastening frames to. 

for carrying joist.— 

glue moulds for. 

making of. 

objections to. 

paper moulds for. 

rubber moulds for.. 

sand for. 

sheet-metal moulds. 

special moulds for. 

specifications for. 

strength of. 

tests of. 

weight of. 

Condemned blocks .. 

Contents of— 

boxes. 

circles . 

cisterns. 

rectangular piers. 

tanks . 

round piers. 

tanks.. 


PAGE 

..._ 95 

.318 

. 48 

.215 

..._159 

. 212 

. 60 

. 58 

.214 

. 70 

55, 351, 354 

. 90 

....... 225 

. 78 

_ ... 200 

. 198 

. 67 

. 220 

. 197 

. 66 

. 94 

. 49 

. 247 

.260 

. 276 

.260 

.250 

.250 

.253 

.252 

. 259 

_244, 250 

. 246 

.260 

. 260 

.248 

. 256 

. 255 

... .266, 270 

.283 

. ...2S4, 2S6 

. 285 

.275 


391 

377 

378 
226 

379 
227 
378 





















































442 


INDEX. 


Contents of— Pa«e 

timber. 371 

•wails and ceilings .307 

Contract for sidewalks . 171 

Contraction of concrete ... 193 

Copper nails, size, etc. 376 

Copings. .-. 179 

Comer blocks, placing of . 3S8 

Cornice. 13» 

Cornices and mouldings . 303 

Corona. 139 

Corrosion of iron in concrete . 58 

Corrugated metal centering . 109 

Cost of cement and plaster work.. 286 

Cracks in walks. 165 

Crushed slag aggregates. 48 

Crushing clinkers. 147 

strength of concrete. 57 

Cubical contents of floor slabs . 222 

of trenches. 237 

Cubic measure.400 

yard, materials for concrete . 66 

Cumming’s system. 92 

Curbs, cutting into lengths . 179 

forms for. 179 

steel bound. 181 

Curing blocks.250, 269 

Curve approximating ellipse. 134 

of angle, to lay out. 119 

of arc. 131 

similar to ellipse. 129 

Cutting walk into blocks. 161 

Cuts on the square. 120 

Cymatium. 139 

Cyma-recta. 139 

Dampness, preventing, in tool-chest . . . 398 

Data on metal lath. 289 

on wood laths. 288 

Day’s work on floors and walks . 166 

Decimals of foot. 420 

of inch. 421 

Dentils, size of. 390 

Depositing concrete. 59 

around beams. 215 

Description of centres. 115 

Determining voids in concrete materials . 53 

Diamond bar. 93 

Diameter of circle. 130 

Different proportions of concrete . 69 

Doors, bevel of. 385 

to fit. 385-387 

Door jambs, to set . .. 387 

Door, to swing. 391 






















































INDEX. 


443 


Dousman hanger. 

Down-spouts, size of. 

Drain tile, laying. 

Driveways. 

Driving nails under water 

Drop arch.. 

Dry concrete. 

grouting . .. 

measure.. 

Duodecimals.. 

Dutch arch. 


PAGE 
. 110 
. 388 
. 216 
. 175 
. 388 
. 127 
. 49 
. 217 
. 402 
. 222 
. 137 


Earth, weight, etc. 

Echinus. 

Effect of oils on concrete . . . 

Efflorescence. 

on concrete . .. 

Electric shock. 

Ellipse: 

curve approximating . . 

deformed. 

to draw. 

Elliptic arch, joints in. 

Encasing interior columns . . 
Entablature, names of parts 
Entasis of column, to draw . 
Estimating: 

bricks for chimneys 

for cisterns. 

for piers. 

for sewers. 

in wall. 

brickwork for boilers . . 

contents of beams. 

of piers. 

of slabs. 

of trenches ... 
cubic yards in ditches . 

duodecimals for. 

earthwork. 

materials for cisterns . . 

plastering. 

plaster work. 

sidewalk work. 

Excavation for sidewalks ... 

tables. 

Expanded metal. 

Expanded-metal lathing . . . 

Expansion of concrete. 

Experiments for volume ... 


236 

139 

200 

395 

201 

422 


134 
129 

135 
122 
102 
138 
133 


232 

234 

233 

235 
232 
230 

225 

226 
o->o 

237 

237 

222 

236 
22S 

306 

307 
224 
159 

237 
94 

2S8 

193 

68 

















































444 


INDEX, 


Facing concrete. 

Fastening for ledger-boards 
frames in walls . . 

Fence posts. -... - 

Fibre plasters. 

Fillet. 

Finding centre of circle . . . 

Fine-ground cement. 

Fineness, cement. 

Finishing coat of walks . . . 

exposed concrete 
surface of walks . 

Fire-brick. 

laying of. 

Fire-clay. . . 

Fireplace openings, size of . 

Fire-proof floors. 

roofing . 

Fire resistance of concrete . 

Flask casting. 

Flat-pointed arch. 

Floor forms. 

slabs, table of. 

Flour-barrel, size of. 

Foot, decimals of. 

Forms: 

for block work. 

for chimney caps. 

for cisterns .. 

for curbs. 

for floors . 

for foundation walls . . 

for posts. 

for sidewalks. 

for steps. 

for troughs. 

hangers for. 

heavy timber. 

metal. 

plank holders for. 

stamped metal. 

wood.. 

Foundation forms. 

of sidewalks.. 

four-centre arch. 

French arch. 

land measure.. 

frieze. 

Furring metal. 

on concrete walls .. 
plugs... 


PAGE 

, 183 
, 142 
. 253 
. 210 
. 301 
. 139 
. 130 
, 71 
, 3-7 
, 162 
, 182 
, 162 
, 391 
, 392 
, 392 
, 393 
, 98 
, 397 
, 186 
263 
, 126 
, 108 
, 90 
, 390 
420 

183 
208 
, 206 
170 
, 108 
, 105 
, 210 
160 
214 
212 
110 
110 
114 
106 
255 

104 

105 
, 159 
. 128 
. 137 

406 
139 
292 
, 148 
, 148 




















































INDEX. 


445 


PAGE 

Gallons in cisterns. 378 

in tanks. 379 

Gambrel roof. 132 

Gelatine moulds.... 259, 397 

Glass moulds. 260 

to remove. 384 

weight of. 379 

Glue moulds. 259 

GothiG arch. 126 

elliptical arch. 125 

Grades of concrete. 220 

Grading for walks. 172 

Granite: 

analysis of. 333 

cleaning of. 383, 395 

strength and weight. 327 

where used...'.... 334 

working strength. 352 

Gravel aggregate. 47 

Ground lime. 75 

Grout. 62 

Grouting. 84 

pavements... 217 

Gutters, size of . . ..*..388 

Hair and fibre. 296 

Hand mixing. 271 

Hand-rail, height of. 386 

Hanging centering. 108 

Hard plasters. 296-299 

Heavy centering.:. 110 

Height of— 

base in rooms.386 

buildings . .. 381 

chair-rail. 386 

flour-barrel .. 390 

hand-rails. 386 

horse-troughs. 385 

wardrobe shelves. 387 

Hexagon bay, to lay out. 122 

Hod, size of. 395 

Hoisting rope, strength of . .. 346 

Hollow space in blocks. 273 

Hopper bevels. 372 

Horse-stalls, size of...*. 385 

Horse-troughs, height of. 385 

Hot water in concrete. 73 

Hydraulic lime. 80 

Hydrated lime. 2^® 

I-beams, strength of........«.... 341 

Impression wax. 39 ® 


















































446 


INDEX. 




PAGE 

Inch, decimals of.421 

Ink for zinc. 389 

International system. 94 

Intersection of walks, to lay out. 119 

Iron bond in walls.. . 393 


Johnson bar. 92 

Joints in centering. 116 

in elliptic arch. 122 

in Gothic arch. 137 

Joist hangers, use of. 252 

on block walls. 252 

Jury-mast knot, to tie. 143 

Kahn bar. 92 

Kalsomine. 398 

Keen’s cement. 297 

Kerfing moulding. 128 

Keys, to fit. 390 


Lancet Gothic arch. 

Land measure, U. S. 

Lagging in centering. 

Lafarge cement. 

Land measure. 

Lathing: 

data on metal. 

on wood. 

metal. 

weights of metal. 

wood. 

Lathing and plastering. 

Laying cement blocks. 

drain tile. 

Laying out— 

angle curve in sidewalks . . 

angles. 

arc by intersecting lines . . 

with lath. 

arch lintel. 

of two arcs. 

bevel of skew-backs . . . .. 

blocks in sidewalks. 

circle heads. 

through three points 

deformed ellipse. 

drop arch. 

Dutch arch. 

ellipse... .. . 

entasis of columns. 

flat-pointed arch. 

four-centre arch. 


125, 126 
... 406 
... 116 
..: 297 
... 400 


289 
288 
288 

290 
287 
287 
252 
216 




119 
124 
131 
131 

136 
128 

120 
164 
133 
129 
129 

127 

137 
135 
133 
126 

128 























































INDEX. 


447 


Laying out— paoe 

French arch. 137 

Gothic arch. 126 

elliptical arch. 125 

hexagon bay. 122 

intersection of walks. 119 

joints in elliptical arch. 122 

in Gothic arch. 137 

lancet Gothic arch. 125 

mansard roof. 132 

mitres. 124 

octagon bay. 122 

ogee bracket. 123 

rake moulding. 121 

reverse curve. 117 

rise and run of steps. 209 

roof hole for chimney. 141 

round corners. 118 

three-centre arch. 127 

Tudor arch. 128 

voussoirs of elliptical arch. 135 

winding stairs. 140 

Laying out work. 117 

Ledger-boards, fastenings for. 146 

Leveling with square. 155 

Level, to adjust. 389 

Lever, power of. 388 

Light-colored cements. 220 

Lime: 

concrete. 68 

for plastering. 295 

hydrated. 295 

hydraulic. 80 

quality, etc. 80 

sand brick. 209 

weight of. 359 

what one barrel of will do. 84 

whitewash. 306 

Limestone: 

analysis of.-... 332 

strength and weight of. 329 

working strength. 352 

Limit of loading.-. 273 

Linear measure.<•. 399 

Until, to lay out arch. 136 

Liquid measure. 401 

Loam in mortar, strength of. 56 

Long-time te3ts of cement. 86 

of mortar. 86 

Loose cement, weight of. 72 

Lubricating moulds. 251 

Lug-bar. 92 

Lumber, weight of..• • 362 




















































PAGE 

Magnesia in cement .-.. 12 

Making blocks. 250 

Mallet, to select. 394 

Manholes, bricks required.-. 235 

Manila rope, strength of. 34S 

Manipulation of cements. 24 

Mansard, to lay out. 132 

Manufacturing blocks. 268 

Masonry, strength of. 353 

Mastic. 305 

Marble: 

analysis of. 329 

weight, etc. 329 

working strength of. 352 

Marking blocks. 272 

gauge.. 390 

Materials for blocks. 265 

for centering. 116 

for cubic yard of concrete .. 229 

for making plaster. 295 

Material per yard of concrete a. 66 

Materials, weight of. 360 

Measuring materials for concrete. 50 

water, device for. 152 

Mechanical mixing . 271 

Mensch bar. 93 

Mensuration tables: 

ale or beer measure . 402 

apothecaries measure . 401 

avoirdupois. . . 400 

circular measure . . .' ... 403 

common measure . 405 

cubic measure . . . 400 

dry measure .. 402 

English wine measure . 402 

French land measure . 406 

land measure. 400 

linear measure. 309 

length of miles. 404 

liquid.401 

measures of the Philippines. 407 

of value. 404 

miscellaneous weights. 405 

Spanish land measure. 406 

square. 399 

surveyor’s measure. 402 

time measure. 403 

Troy weight. 403 

U. S. land measure. 406 

weights of bushels. „.. . 407 

weight of coin. 404 

Mesh of sieves for testing. 70 




















































INDEX- 449 

PAGE 

Metal forma .... 

furring.292 

lathing. 2S8 

plank holders. jQg 

reinforcements. go 

Metals, weight of .. 354 

Miles, length of.. 

Miscellaneous weights.. 

Mirror for setting stone. 455 

Mitering circle and straight moulding. 120 

Mitres, to find on square. 124 

Mixing concrete. 50 

for blocks. 249 

mortar.-..... 82 

Mixtuie for blocks. 249 

Modeling day, to make...,.3.54 

Mortar: 

box for mixing. S3 

cement ... .....,. 77 

Cement-Erne. 76 

for pointing. 84 

long-time tests of. 86 

made with caked cement. 81 

materials for making. 74 

mixing. 82 

porosity of. 193 

relative strength of. 82 

remixing cement. 82 

strength of. 54-85 

sugar in................................................... 75 

to color. 78 

use of. 84 

watertight. 78 

Moulding. naiEng in doors. 387 

to lay out rake. 121 

Moulds for ornamental work: 

brass. 260 

gelatine, for plaster casting.397 

glass. 260 

glue. 259 

paper.260 

rubber. 260 

sand... 260 

sheet-metal. 256 

special.. 255 

Moulds for plaster casts. 397 

MultipUers for calculations. 417 

Nailing-blocks.....-. 14*. 255 

Nailing in hardwood . .. .. 389 

Nailing-plugs .. 14® 

Nails, site, etc.. 375 























































450 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Natural cement.1* 10. 17 

Non-freezing cement. 218 

Non-staining cement. 18 

Non-uniform color of walks. 166 

Notes on sidewalk work. 164 

on cement and concrete. 69 

Number of bricks for paving. 233 

in piers. 233 

Nuts, weight of. 365 

Objections to concrete blocks. 246 

Octagon: 

length of side. 380 

to find area of. 416 

side of. 388 

to lay out bay.r. 122 

Odds and ends for noon hour. 423 

Ogee bracket, to lay out. 123 

Oil for oil-stoves. 389 

Oils, effect on concrete. 200 

Open casting. 260 

Open-end flask casting. 263 

Ornamental moulds. 255 

Outside stucco. 304 

Paint: 

cement-milk. 218 

for concrete. 217 

for roofs. 390 

to clean. 384 

water-proof for blocks.j. 221 

with cement wash. 220 

Painting cement. 70 

on concrete. 219 

with cement wash. 220 

Papier macM. 305 

Paper moulds. 260 

Paste, for iron. 389 

Patching sidewalks, etc. 217 

Patent plasters. 296-299 

Pavements, resistance to wear.334 

Pebble dash. 304 

Penny, as applied to nails. 389 

Percentage of strength of concrete at different ages. 70 

Permeability of concrete. 193 

Philippine weights, etc. 407 

Piano, size of.•. 385 

Piers, contents of concrete. 226, 227 

Piles, concrete. 102 

carrying power of. 363 

Placing concrete around reinforcing.'. 95 

Plank-holders. 106 

Plank, to sling edgewise. 142 



















































INDEX. 


451 


PAGE 

Plank, to sling for staging. 145 

Plastering: 

applying. 297 

data for. 307 

directions for. 300 

estimating. 306 

lime. 298 

mastic. 305 

materials for.. 295 

patent plasters for. 299 

pebble dash. 304 

pulp. 302 

rough cast. 304 

scagliola. 304 

skim-coat. . . 303 

soapstone finish. 297 

staff.,. 305 

stucco work. 303 

tables for estimating. 307 

Plaster of Paris. 296 

to mix. 397 

Plastering on concrete. 158 

Plinth. 139 

Plumbing with square. 153 

Plumb rule. 394 

Pole, to sling. 142 

Polygon: 

area of. 416 

length of side. 416 

to draw. 134 

Porosity of concrete. 193 

of mortar. 70 

Portland cement. 4 

Posts, cement. 210 

Pouring cement. 263 

Practical cement testing ... .. 34 

Production of marble in United States. 332 

Proportions and strength of concrete. 52 

for blocks. 270 

of cement-mortar. 77 

Proportioning materials for concrete. 48 

Protection of steel by concrete. 58 

of stonework. 396 

of walk. 163 

Pulleys, power of. 388 

Pulp plasters. 301 

Purchase tests. 30 

Puszolan cement. 13 

Quantity of earth, etc., to ton. 236 

of materials for concrete. 65 

Quicksand. 



















































452 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Radius of arc—to find. 132 

of circle, brick. 393 

Rake nfouldings, to lay out. 121 

Ransome system. 92 

Rate of selling of cement. 36 

Receipts, etc.-. 383 

Red stain for brick or concrete. 398 

Roof hole of chimney, to lay out. 141 

Reinforced concrete: 

adhesion of steel in .... 203 

forms for *. 108 

metal reinforcements for. 92 

designing slabs, etc, .. 89 

removal of forms from .. 221 

rules for .. 95 

superintendence of .. 318 

weight of. 94 

Refractory concrete. 193 

Relative strength of mortar. 82 

Remixed mortar. 82 

Removal of forms. 221 

Removing mortar spots. 221 

Retarding setting of cement.... . 220 

Resilience of timber. 390 

Resistance of pavements to wear. 334 

Reverse curve .. .. 117 

Rise of stairs. 372 

Roof coverings, weight of..... 361 

Roof-lath, spacing of,. . 386 

Roof paint.. 390 

Roofs, weight of , .. 364 

Rope: 

care of.,... 156 

mouldings .. 386 

strength of manila.,. 348 

of wire. 346 

weight of manila. 348 

of wire , .. 346 

Rough-cast finish .. 304 

Round corners, to lay out... . . H 8 

Rubbing stone, tool for. 155 

Rubble stonework, strength of. 354 

Rubber moulds. 280 

Rules for— 

manufacture of blocks. 276 

plastering. 297 

reinforced concrete 95 

superintending concrete construction.318 

testing cement. 18 

Rust stains, to remove. 385 

Rutty nailing-plug .. ,,.,. 148 


















































INDEX. 453 

PAGE 

Sack of cement, weight of....;. 72 

Saline water in cement. 71 

Salt in concrete , .. 73 

Sampling cement.. 32 

Sand: 

amount for concretes. 229 

for blocks. 248 

for concrete ., .. 48 

for mortar. 79 

lime brick. 209 

quick... 779 

weight of. 359 

with clay.. 55 

Sandstone, analysis of. 331 

strength and weight of. 328 

working strength .. 352 

where used... 335 

Sash-cord, strength of wire. 348 

Saw, to file. 390 

Scaling walks... 166 

Scagliola .. 304 

Screws, size, etc. .. 375 

Seasoning timber increases strength.390 

Segment-heads, radius of ....,,. 388 

Separating blocks in walk ... 161 

Setting cement blocks. 155 

steps ...,.... 209 

Settling of aggregates. 266 

Sewer forms. 114 

Sewers, cement required .. 235 

Sheathing paper, use of. 391 

Sheep-shank, to tie. 142 

Shelves, height of wardrobe. 387 

Sheet-metal moulds .. 255 

Short cuts, etc. .. 142 

Sidewalks: 

amount per barrel of cement. 224 

base of... 160 

coloring of . , .. 164 

construction of. 159 

contract for , .. 171 

cutting into blocks .. 161 

finishing coat for .. 162 

forms for . .. 160 

foundation for. 159 

mixing concrete for. 160 

nqtes on. 164 

protection of . , .. 163 

size of blocks to cut. 164 

specifications for... 166, 172 

in various cities... 170 

thickness of .... 163, 177 




















































454 INDEX. 

Sidewalks: pa#e 

tools for laying. 167 

Silica cement. 16 

Simple tests of cement. 29 

Size of blocks to cut, walks. 164 

Skew-backs, bevel of. 120 

Slab, weight of concrete in. 94 

Slag cement. 12 

Slope of earths. 236 

Soapstone finish. 297 

Soils, carrying power of. 363 

Soundness of cement. 7, 34 

of timber. 388 

Spacing, kerfing.*.. 128 

joints of arch. 140 

Spanish land measure. 406 

Special moulds. 255 

Specific gravity. 24 

Specifications for— 

cements. 9-17 

forms. 115 

hollow blocks... .. • 266-270 

natural cement..... 2 

Portland cement. 6 

Puzzolan cement.'. 14 

sidewalk work. 166, 171, 172 

Spikes, size, etc. 375 

Spreading concrete. 161 

Square, cuts on. 120 

Square measure. 399 

Squaring tapering timber. 141 

Staff.\. 305 

Staining bricks. 395 

Stairs, tread of. 372 

Stairways, hand of. 386 

Standard specifications. 9 

block specifications. 270 

Steel bound curb. 181 

square, description of. 156 

Step-ladders, to make. 390 

Steps, laying out. 209 

of concrete. 214 

Stone dust in mortar._. 78 

Stones, strength, etc. 330 

Stop-knot, to tie. 145 

Strength of— 

blocks. 283 

brick... .. ... 330 

piers. 356 

brickwork, working. 351 

building blocks. 283 

cast-iron columns. 339 

cement mortar. 4 . 350 





















































INDEX, 


455 


Strength of— page 

cement mortar, long testa. gg 

channels. 344 

colunms. 354 

concrete. 57 

beams. qq 

at different ages. 70 

working. 351 

floor slabs. 90 

granites. 327 

I-beams. 34 1 

• limestones. 329 

marbles. 329 

masonry, safe. 353-355 

materials. 349 

Manila rope. 348 

metals. 34g 

mortar with caked cement. 81 

natural cements. 43 

natural-cement concrete. 58 

piles. 363 

Portland cements . . . ,7 .. . . . 40 

Portland-cement mortar. 54 

relative, of cement mortar. 82 

sandstones. 328 

sand with clay. 56 

soils, etc. 363 

stonework. 351 

timber working. 351 

various materials, working. 351 

stones. 330-350 

woods. 338 

wire rope. 346 

sash-cord. 348 

wooden beams. 337 

pillars. 336 

Streaks in walks. 166 

Striking centering.• • . 116 

Stucco. 303 

Sub-floor for concrete. 221 

Substances, weight of. 357 

Sugar in mortar. 75 

Sullivan plank-holders. 106 

Sulphuric acid in cement. 12 

Superintending concrete construction.318 

Supporting floor centering. 108 

Surveyors measure.402 


Tacks, size, etc. 

Tenia. 

Tensile strength of natural cement . 

of Portland cement 
Temperatures. 


375 

139 

43 

40 

146 





















































456 


INDEX. 


Fa«E 

Ten for sped£c grariiy....... 19 

Tests of— 

center:. 18 

aceeieratei. - 22 

activity. 20 

mortar in oil. 202 

con creie blocks......275-283 

constancy of volume of cement..... 30 

expansion of cement. 34 

fixe resstance of concrete.....1S6 

g-rmnir.g- of cemen ..... 19 

hollow blocks .. 279 

mortar with caked cement. Si 

soundness of cement. 34 

specific gravity of cement. 19 

strength of cement. ... 21 

tensile, of cement. 26 

Thatcher bar .. 92 

Thickness of sidewalk?. 177 

of walks. 163 

Three-center arch ... 127 

Timber: 

centering. 110 

increase of strength by seasoning. 393 

reduced to board measure. 370 

resilience of. 399 

strength of beams. 337 

of poets.. 336 

of various. 33S 

to sling on end... 142 

wei@it of. 338, 362 

working strength of. 353, 3-54 

Time, measure of......... 403 

Time of setting of cement.. 3 

Timing of walls. 397 

To color cement mortar. 7 g 

To cat stick square .. 3SS 

To harden concrete surfaces. 221 

Tool for rubbing stone. 155 

Tools, to mark. 3 S 9 

Tools used in sidewalk work. 167 

Top coat of walks . 162 

To shorten rope. 142 

To sling a barrel. 142 

column. 142 

plank edgewise. 142 

plank-staying.. 145 

pole or timber. 142 

Torus. 139 

Totin' the hod.429 

To whiten dirty plastering. 39 g 

Tread of stairs. 372 






















































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INDEX, 


458 

Weight of— page 

limestones. 329 

lumber. 362 

Manila rope. 348 

marble. 329 

metal lath. 289 

metals, relative. 364 

roof coverings. 361 

rough glass. 380 

sandstones. 328 

various materials. 357 

water. 417 

wire rope. 346 

sash-cord. 348 

woods. 338 

Wet concrete. 49 

What a barrel of cement will do. 223 

barrel of lime will do. 84 

Whitewash. 306 

Width of wire and metal lath. 291 

Wind, pressure of. 364 

Winding stair, to lay out. 141 

Wine measure. 402 

Wire lath. 289 

reinforcement. 94 

Withrawing bolts... 106 

Wooden beams, safe load. 337 

posts, safe load. 336 

Wood forms. 104 

lathing.. 287 

Woods, strength and weight of. 338 

Working strength of concrete. 55 

of masonry. 355 

of materials. 351 

Yards, cubic, in tranches, etc... 237 








































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